1992 Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems

SOUTH AFRICA (REPUBLIC OF)

Area 1,221,040 sq. km

Population 39,600,000 (1990)

Natural increase: 2.7% per annum

Economic Indicators

GDP: US$ 2,439 per capita (1987)

GNP: US$ 2,290 per capita (1988)

Policy and Legislation At a national level the constitution, dating from 1984, has sections which pertain to environmental affairs. Many aspects of conservation policy, legislation, administration and management are, however, managed on a regional basis. The four provinces of Cape, Transvaal, Natal and the Orange Free State, which make up the bulk of the country by area, have local governments which are primarily responsible for certain provincial matters, including most aspects of wildlife conservation: they have their own conservation agencies and some of their own legislation. There are also, separate from the provinces, ten homelands. Six of these, referred to in some of the literature as national states, have a degree of self government, but still form part of the Republic. These are: Kwa Zulu, Gazankulu, Lebowa, Qwaqwa, Ka Ngwana and Kwa Ndebele. The remaining four homelands are regarded by the South African government, although not by the international community, as independent. These are Bophuthatswana (granted full independence in 1977), Transkei (1976), Venda (1979) and Ciskei (1981). The central governmental authorities involved in conservation do not have jurisdiction in these four "independent" homelands. Rather, these homelands have their own legislative framework - much of this appears to be based around South African legislation carried over at independence, but some of these Acts have since been repealed and amended, and others have been added.

The Environment Conservation Act No. 100, 1982 was a wide-ranging Act covering the establishment of the Council for the Environment and a range of other conservation issues (Hoogervorst, 1986) . Introduction of statutory environmental impact assessment legislation was first discussed in depth under this Act by the Interim Committee on Environmental Impact Assessment, which was organised by the Standing Committee for Environment and Society, a part of the Council for the Environment (Hoogervorst, 1986). The Act also proclaimed a limited area, extending 1km inland from the high water mark along the coast: development was controlled and certain activities were prohibited without a permit in this area (Hockey and Buxton, 1989). This latter provision, has however, fallen away (Brooks, pers. comm., 1991). A replacement for this Act, also called the Environment Conservation Act No. 3, was passed in 1989. The purpose of this Act is "to provide for the effective protection and controlled utilisation of the environment and matters incidental thereto". This legislation provides for the institution of the Committee for Environmental Management under the Department of Environment Affairs (Hall-Martin,1990). This new version of the Act incorporated a National Policy for Environmental Conservation; a tentative provision for the incorporation of statutory environmental impact assessments and some provisions to allow the public a stronger voice when making legal challenges against administrative decisions concerning the environment (Deacon, 1990; Glazewski, 1989). This Act also makes provisions for two new protected area categories: protected natural environment and special nature reserves (see Annex). It also provides for a land control category, namely the limited development area (Hall-Martin, 1990). This Act has recently been repealed in the Cape (Rebelo, pers. comm., 1991).

The Council for the Environment set about forming a series of policy documents on topics including environmental education, coastal-zone management, protected areas, open-space planning, and integrated environmental management. In addition, the Council initiated the preparation of an overall "National Environmental Policy and Strategy", which provides the conceptual basis for, and integrates the different facets of environmental matters: this includes the maintenance of biotic diversity as an important feature. The policy and strategy document draws heavily on the UNEP World Conservation Strategy, national conservation strategies already produced by a number of other countries, white papers submitted to the South African Parliament, and the Report on Nature Conservation by the President's Council. Among the broad goals identified in this policy are the preservation of genetic diversity and ensuring the sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems. Seven fundamental principles and strategic approaches form the basis of the proposed policy and include, among other things: the integration of planning for conservation and development; the development of environmental knowledge and a predictive capacity for future application; the development of procedures for integrated environmental management; and the education of and active participation by the public in environmental matters (Botha and Huntley, 1989).

The major national protected areas legislation is the National Parks Act of 1976, amended to 1987 (Act No. 60), which revises, amends and consolidates the earlier acts of 1926 and 1962. It lays down provisions for the establishment and management of national parks (see Annex). Schedules of the Act define eight national parks. Further parks may be created by presidential proclamation and may include marine and coastal areas, although existing marine reserves have all been declared under the provisions of the Sea Fisheries Act (see below). Boundaries may be extended by proclamation, but exclusion of an area from a park requires a parliamentary resolution. The minister is authorised to acquire land for park purposes by purchase, exchange or expropriation. A 1983 amendment (Act 23) to the National Parks Act makes provision for the purchase or acquisition of core areas on private lands, or in other possession, to be declared national parks, with all the characteristics and legal protection of existing national parks. The Act also provides for the inclusion, with the written approval of the owners, of suitable adjacent land, to be known as "contractual national parks". These contractual parks constitute an integral part of the buffer areas which surround the core areas: core areas cover the natural phenomenon or feature that is particularly singled out to be preserved as a national asset, while thebuffer areas cover the surrounding areas, giving better protection to the core and together forming a more viable unit. The Lake Areas Development Act No. 39, 1975 provides for the establishment of national lake areas under the control of the National Parks Board (see Annex) (Hockey and Buxton, 1989).

The most important current forestry legislation is the Forest Act No. 122, 1984, amended by the Forestry Amendment Act No. 53, 1991 (see Annex). This Act regulates the setting aside of land as nature reserves, protection forests and also as wilderness areas. In addition, the Act covers fire control measures, including the clearance of firebelts (Anon., 1972). Areas are also protected as mountain catchment areas under the Mountain Catchment Areas Act, No. 63, 1970 (see Annex).

Marine reserves were first described in Section 13 of the Sea Fisheries Act No. 58, 1973 and the accompanying Sea Fisheries Regulations which were amended some 62 times between 1974 and 1987 (see Annex) (Hockey and Buxton, 1989). A new Sea Fisheries Act No. 12, 1988 provides policy guidelines for the conservation and optimal utilisation of living marine resources, under the jurisdiction of the Chief Directorate of Sea Fisheries, the Department of Environment Affairs (Hall-Martin, 1990).

There are a number of conservation areas which have no legal status but are of conservation significance: many privately-owned sites are being registered as natural heritage sites under the Natural Heritage Programme, or as Sites of Conservation Significance. South Africa also has a very large number of private game reserves (see Systems Review).

Natal Present legislation is based on the Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 15, 1974, which deals with protected areas, hunting, and the protection of species of animals and plants (Natal Parks Board, n.d.; Brooks, pers. comm., 1991). Categories found include parks, nature reserves and game reserves.

Transvaal The most important piece of environmental legislation is the Transvaal Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 12, 1983 which enables the Administrator of the province to declare areas as nature reserves, and also to amend or withdraw such declarations. The Ordinance also covers hunting, protected species of animals and plants, and fisheries (Anon., n.d.). The management of private protected areas as privately-owned nature reserves is also covered under this legislation (Lötter, pers. comm., 1991).

Cape Provincial nature reserves, local nature reserves and private nature reserves may be designated by the Cape Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation under the Nature Conservation Ordinance of 1974. In 1988, the administration of a number of coastal and marine reserves was handed over to the Department and they were designated as provincial nature reserves (Hall-Martin, 1990).

Orange Free State Legislation dealing with protected areas, control over hunting, selling, and transportation of game, fish, and protected plants is the NatureConservation Ordinance No. 8, 1969, amended to 1991. This Ordinance enables the Administrator of the province to declare certain areas as nature reserves, and to amend or withdraw such declarations (Jansen, pers. comm., 1991). Other protected area categories include game farms and game reserves (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

National states (Leboura, Ganzakulu, Qwa-qwa, Kangwane, Kwa Ndebele and Kwa Zulu) Kwa Zulu was proclaimed a self-governing territory in 1977 and the legislative assembly was given wide legislative powers which included forestry and environmental conservation. Proposals for future conservation areas in Maputaland (Kwa Zulu) are given in Bruton (1980). No information is available for the other national states.

Bophuthatswana There are a number of national parks, game reserves and nature reserves; an amended National Parks Act was passed in 1987. An Executive Council Policy Directive was prepared by the Board and has been approved by the President. This policy covers the protection of endangered species and the establishment and management of natural and semi-natural areas as part of the "Parks and Wildlife Estate", while suggesting that, where appropriate, the renewable, wild, natural resources of the country should enhance rural productivity and improve the quality of human life. It is thus very much concerned with producing a stable nature conservation system in the homeland that is based on the values and the needs of the local population (Collinson, 1987; Thomson, 1984). The policy outlines a direction for the National Parks Board that fits the philosophies of the Board and to some degree circumvents what is seen as restrictive in the existing legislation. The policy divides national parks and nature reserves into two classes, thus giving five categories in total: national park (Class 1), national park (Class 2), game reserve, nature reserve (Class 1) and nature reserve (Class 2). In the Class 2 category for both national park and nature reserve, restrictions are likely to be less stringent with greater allowances for the local human population and for visitors, including limited habitat modification and restricted use by domestic livestock (Thomson, 1986).

Ciskei There are a number of indigenous forests proclaimed under the Ciskeian Forestry Act No. 6, 1976), many of which form part of the larger state forests. There is also a game park. The major recent legislation is the Ciskeian Nature Conservation Act No. 10, 1987. In terms of marine and coastal legislation, this Act replaces all the existing South African legislation; it establishes a coastal conservation area which extends 1km inland from the coast: any development within this area must be sanctioned by the Ciskeian Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development (Hockey and Buxton, 1989).

Venda The Venda Nature Conservation Act No. 10, 1973 allows for the creation of national parks; there is one such national park presently under its jurisdiction (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Transkei Categories include nature reserves and forest reserves. Transkei retains both the South African Seashore Act, and the Sea Fisheries Act and Regulations as theywere amended at independence in October 1976. However, effective policing of these only appears to occur in those nature reserves that lie on the coast (Hockley and Buxton, 1989).

International Activities At an international level, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was signed without reservation as to ratification on 12 March 1975, with seven sites having been declared (March 1991). South Africa is not party to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), and no biosphere reserves have been declared under the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The position of the "independent" homelands in relation to these international conventions is unclear.

The Republic of South Africa has ratified the 1933 Convention on the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State (London Convention), which is largely concerned with the establishment of protected areas. It is, however, one of the few African states that is not a party to the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Africa Convention), which is widely regarded as the successor to the London Convention.

There is some transboundary cooperation with the management of border parks; Kalahari Gemsbok National Park is managed in cooperation with Gemsbok National Park in Botswana, and there are no fences between these parks (Armstrong, 1991). There has been considerable cooperation with the government of the Kingdom of Lesotho, notably between the Natal Parks Board and the Range Management Division of the Lesotho Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperatives and Marketing: together they are working on the Drakensberg/Maluti Mountain Catchment Conservation Programme, an area which forms a major part of the catchment for the Orange River, important to both countries (Bainbridge et al., 1989). The Natal Parks Board has also cooperated in the production of a management plan for Lesotho's Sehlabthebe National Park. There has been a suggestion that a series of trans-border parks and buffer zones be established between South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, linking Kruger National Park with Malapati Game Reserve in Zimbabwe and possibly incorporating some areas of Mozambique (Anon., 1990).

Administration and Management

The four major provinces of Cape, Transvaal, Natal and the Orange Free State each has its own conservation agency. Conservation and protected areas administration and management in the six "semi-independent" homelands or national states is carried out by both regional and central authorities, while the central governmental authorities involved in conservation generally do not have jurisdiction in the four "independent" homelands.

The central body concerned with protected areas, specifically national parks proclaimed under the National Parks Act, is the National Parks Board. This was set up by parliament in 1926 under the National Parks Act No. 56, and was the firststatutory board to be instituted in South Africa. Its present terms of existence are defined under the 1976 National Parks Act No. 57. Originally there were 10 members on the Board, which was expanded to 12 in 1962, including one member nominated from each of the provinces and one from the Wildlife Society. There is now a staff of over 6,000 and all activities within national parks are carried out by the Board's own staff and management structures (Anon, 1991). Such activities include nature management, research, information services, administration and supply services, tourism, and infrastructural development. The budget of the National Parks Board in 1990 was some R 50 million, with about two thirds of this self-generated (Anon., n.d.). The policy of the National Parks Board of Trustees is largely centred on the good management and maintenance of the present national park network, and limited expansion of this network.

The Department of Environment Affairs is another central governmental body concerned with general conservation issues, incorporating the former Department of Forestry, now called the Directorate of Forestry, the Sea Fisheries Directorate and Sea Fisheries Research Institute. The Sea Fisheries Directorate is responsible for marine and offshore conservation (Hall-Martin, 1990).

The Directorate of Forestry in the South African Department of Environmental Affairs was established in 1910 % the terms of establishment currently lie within the 1984 Forest Act and the 1970 Mountain Catchment Areas Act (Greyling and Huntley, 1984). It currently administers some 115 areas under the Forest Act and the Mountain Catchment Areas Act % management aims for these areas range from strict protection to intensive tourist use, timber production and exploitation. The budget for the 1982/1983 financial year for management and research was nearly R 8 million (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

The Committee for Environmental Management was instituted by the Department of Environmental Affairs under the 1989 Environment Conservation Act (No. 73). This Committee brings together a wide range of government and non-governmental organisations to advise the Department on matters which may influence the protection and utilisation of the environment and to coordinate and promote the Environment Conservation Act (Hall-Martin, 1990). The Department of Environment Affairs also contains the Directorate of Environmental Conservation which is largely responsible for the South African Natural Heritage Programme (described below) (Cohen, n.d.).

The Council for the Environment is a separate body which was established in 1982 under the Environment Conservation Act. Its role is to advise the Minister of Environment Affairs and Tourism on the coordination of all actions directed at or liable to have an influence on any matter affecting the conservation and utilisation of the environment. The Council consists of 25 members. The Council's work is carried out by five standing committees and four working committees. The four working committees include Environmental Education, and Coastal and Marine Systems. The standing committees include Natural System, Environment and Society, and Policy and Strategy (Hoogervorst, 1986).

Members of the Department of Environment Affairs, the National Parks Board and the four provincial conservation agencies serve on the regional development advisory committees which play an important role in relation to regional development activities. In many areas non-governmental organisations may also be represented on these regional committees, and several of the committees have environmental sub-committees and have achieved a balanced assessment of conservation and development needs (Hall-Martin, 1990).

The four provincial conservation agencies, the National Parks Board and other official agencies dealing with the environment, coordinate their assessments of the need for establishing new protected areas with the Directorate of Nature Conservation, in a forum known as the South Africa Plan for Nature Conservation. The Plan makes use of a network of ten regional working groups convened by members of the provincial nature conservation agencies and comprising representatives of all the relevant bodies, including those in all ten of the homelands, which maintain a continuous review of protected area needs. Areas worthy of protection are identified and rated in terms of national priorities. Protection methods are proposed and carried out as far as possible. The Department of Environment Affairs also maintains a data-bank on all protected areas as part of the South African Plan for Nature Conservation, with information supplied by the authorities responsible (Hall-Martin, 1990). Another major programme administered as a part of the South African Plan for Nature Conservation is the South African Natural Heritage Programme (mentioned in Systems Reviews).

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is the major central scientific body in South Africa. It runs a series of cooperative scientific programmes, which are open to participation by all scientists and scientific institutions in South Africa. Several of these programmes are concerned with environmental problems, notably the National Programme for Environmental Sciences which, with its guiding committee, coordinates research under the headings of inland water ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems, nature conservation (including habitat conservation and the management and utilisation of wildlife) and human needs, resources and the environment. This programme aims to improve management and utilisation of ecosystems and natural resources, to contribute to international scientific activities, and to provide user agencies such as governments, provincial administration and non-governmental organisations with information required for planning purposes to keep environmental problems to a minimum (Anon., 1984). The Division of Science and Technology at the Jonkershoek Forestry Research Centre, as a part of the CSIR, is currently looking into a project, to be funded by the South Africa Nature Foundation, to develop a digital map of all available nature conservation areas in South Africa.

Natal The Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board was established by virtue of the Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Ordinance No. 35, 1947 as a semi-autonomous body funded by the Natal Provincial Administration. In 1991, the Board, widely known as the Natal Parks Board, administered 75 protected areas, including parks, nature reserves, game reserves, state forests and marine reserves (Brooks, pers. comm., 1991). The annual budget for the Board in 1991/92 was R 93million, when there was a total staff of over 3,500 (Brooks, pers. comm., 1991). Many of the reserves qualify for national park status in terms of their management, infrastructure, biotic diversity, size and legal standing. The Natal Parks Board has also introduced the idea of conservancies, in which private landowners form cooperatives to ensure the effective conservation management of their properties: by 1991 there were some 130 conservancies, covering about 1 million ha, serviced by numerous game guards (Brooks, pers. comm., 1991).

Transvaal The Nature Conservation Division, now the Chief Directorate of Nature and Environmental Conservation of the Transvaal Provincial Administration was established in 1947 by virtue of Ordinance No. 23, 1949; in 1991 it administered 52 provincial reserves and recreation areas, covering 299,222ha (Lötter, pers. comm., 1991). The Chief Directorate of Nature and Environmental Conservation partially administers protected natural environments, and is responsible for managing wilderness areas, mountain catchment areas, natural heritage sites (60), which currently have no legal status, and sites of conservation significance (Lötter, pers. comm., 1991). The following areas are excluded from the jurisdiction of the Directorate: national parks under the control of the National Parks Board of South Africa; Bophuthatswana; Venda; Lebowa, Gazankulu, Kangwane, and Kwandebele; protected areas managed by the Directorate of Forestry; and protected areas managed by the South African Development Trust (Lötter, pers. comm., 1991). The Directorate's budget for 1990/1991 was R 30 million (excluding salaries), with a total staff of 1,276, including 216 nature conservation officers and a research staff of 42. In addition to the areas protected at the Provincial level, there are a vast number of municipal and private reserves: there are 450 private nature reserves with a combined area of about 1,277,900ha belonging to municipalities, corporate bodies and private individuals. There are also about 1,500 private game fenced areas (Lötter, pers, comm., 1991).

Cape The Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation was established under Ordinance No. 26, 1957. In 1982/1983 it administered some 99 areas, one third of which were provincial nature reserves while the remainder were local authority nature reserves. The Department's budget for 1982/1983 was R 10,474 million inclusive of salaries, with a total of 440 staff including 250 full-time labourers and 40 researchers (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Orange Free State The Nature Conservation Division, now the Orange Free State Nature and Environmental Conservation Directorate, was established in 1964 by decision of the Provincial Council Executive Committee. In 1991, it administered 14 provincial nature reserves with a total area of 164,479ha. An additional 14 private nature reserves, with a total area of 13,184ha and 25 conservancies with a total area of 350,000ha, also falls under the management programme of the Directorate (Jansen, pers. comm., 1991). The Directorate's budget for 1991/1992 is over R 8 million, including the salaries of a total of 656 staff comprised of 224 conservation officers, 27 researchers and various other personnel (Jansen, pers. comm., 1991).

National states (Leboura, Ganzakulu, Qwa-qwa, Kangwane, Kwa Ndebele and KwaZulu) The consolidation of the land planned to fall within these states is not yet complete. Some conservation areas which may be part of these states in the future, and which are at present held by the South African Development Trust, are administered by the Nature Conservation Subdirectorate in the Department of Cooperation and Development. Other areas are administered by the respective nature conservation divisions of the states. The combined budget of these conservation agencies in 1982/1983 was over R 4 million, including salaries, while the combined staff complement of these agencies was approximately 360, excluding labourers, with a total of about 30 research staff (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Bophuthatswana The National Parks Board of Bophuthatswana fell under the legal definition provided by the old National Parks Act (the 1976 Republic of South Africa Act) and the Bophuthatswana Nature Conservation Act. It was established in its present form in 1984 from an amalgamation of the Parks Board (also known as the Pilanesberg Game Reserve Control Committee) in the Department of Lands and Rural Development and the Division of Nature Conservation in the Department of Agriculture and Forestry; all protected areas, as well as conservation issues in general, are the responsibility of the National Parks and Wildlife Management Board as it is now called (Thomson, 1984). In 1985, the organisation of the National Parks Board was decentralised to five regions: Central, Northern, Eastern, Southern and Western (Collinson, 1985). The budget for 1982/3 was R 3,234 million, while there were some 202 staff, including a conservation staff of 126 and a research staff of 7 (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Ciskei Most of Ciskei's conservation effort is devoted to the conservation of the indigenous forests, of which nine have been declared. These forests, which may form part of larger state forests, are administered by the Forestry Boards of the Ciskeian Department of Agriculture and Forestry which was established by virtue of the Ciskeian Forestry Act No. 6, 1976. The 1984/1985 budget for the indigenous forests was R 509,700, excluding salaries (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Venda The Nature Conservation Division of the Venda Department of Agriculture was established in 1979 by virtue of the Venda Nature Conservation Act of 1973; only one conservation area is administered by this Division, Nwanedi National Park. The 1982/1983 budget for the administration of this park was some R 80,000, including salaries. Nine staff are employed by this Division and there are no permanent research staff (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Transkei The Division of Nature Conservation of the Transkei Department of Agriculture and Forestry was established by virtue of the Transkei Nature Conservation Act No. 6, 1971; in 1982/1983 seven conservation areas and numerous forest reserves were administered by this Division. The budget for the administration of these areas that year was some R 323,000 for the conservation areas and some R 360,000 for the forest reserves, with both these figures including salaries. Some 36 staff are involved in the administration of the conservation areas, while some 120 administer the forest reserves. There are no permanent research staff, but theUniversity of Transkei undertakes research in these areas (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

There are a number of national non-governmental organisations % the oldest and largest of these is the Wildlife Society of South Africa, established in its present form in 1926, incorporating the Transvaal Game Protection Association, which was formed in 1902. The Society has 30,000 members and an annual turnover of R 5 million and makes a major contribution to environmental education and research. It has some influence on the government, playing an important role in the promulgation of the National Parks Act of 1926, and was granted a permanent seat on the National Parks Board (Anon., 1991; Deacon, 1990). Another major non-governmental organisation is the Southern African Nature Foundation (WWF-South Africa). Since its foundation in 1968, this organisation has raised US$ 10 million for almost 200 conservation projects in 12 countries of Southern Africa. The Foundation has campaigned hard for the expansion of the protected areas network and has been instrumental in the purchase and establishment of a large number of sites in South Africa (Anon., 1988).

St Lucia Game Reserve in Natal was added to the IUCN List of Threatened Protected Areas of the World in December 1990 as a result of an application by a private company to dredge mine titanium in an area of dunes.

Systems Reviews South Africa is a large country, with the longest national coastline of any African state extending some 3,000km from the South Atlantic to the southern Indian Ocean. To the north, it shares a border with Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and to the north-east with Mozambique and Swaziland. It also contains wholly within its borders the fully independent Kingdom of Lesotho. Apart from a small area in Transvaal in the north-east, most of the country lies south of the Tropic of Capricorn. There is a narrow coastal plain behind most of the shoreline which widens to some 80km in the north-east, in Zululand. On the west and east coasts, the coastal plain is backed by foothills, scarps and small plateaux leading to the massive central plateau which makes up much of the centre of Southern Africa. Most of this plateau is above 1,000m and comprises flat or gently undulating land, sloping gently down to the north-west of the country. In the south and south-west, the coastal plain is backed by several ranges of ancient fold mountains which rise in some places to over 2,000m. Their northern edge slopes down to the Great Karroo, a slightly lower plateau which lies between the ranges and the main central plateau. The port and surrounding area (1,124 sq. km) of Walvis Bay in Namibia is also administered by South Africa, and is considered to be a part of Cape Province % it lies over 500km north of the main South Africa/Namibia border. South Africa also has sovereignty over Prince Edward Islands (Marion Island and Prince Edward Island), which lie about 2,300km south-east of Cape Town in the South Indian Ocean.

The biogeographic affinities of the country are Cape in the south and south-west, Karoo-Namib in the west, Kalahari-Highveld regional transition zone in the centre, Zambezian in the north and east, Afromontane in the Drakensbergs, and Tongaland-Pondoland regional mosaic along the eastern coast (Stuart and Adams,1990). South Africa is renowned for its huge floristic diversity and high levels of species endemism; there are some seven floristically distinct biomes, five of which are species rich, while the Cape floristic region in the south-west corner of Cape Province has an unique flora and is one of the world's floristic kingdoms. The vegetation forms a complex mosaic determined by topography, climate and evolutionary history (Cowling et al., 1989; Davis et al., 1986; ). Acocks (1975) provides a widely used subdivision of South African floral communities into some 70 `veld types'.

In the north and east the dominant biome is arid savanna (in the northern Cape Province, large parts of Bophuthatswana, Venda, Gazankulu, Kangwane, Lebowa and in Transvaal and Natal); in the north-east (in Transvaal and Lebowa) this arid savanna grades into moist savanna, while there are also areas of moist savanna on the east coast (in Natal and Kwazulu). A large block of grassland occupies the central areas in the eastern half of the country (including the southern half of Transvaal, much of the Orange Free State, northern Transkei and eastern Cape Province). Most of the central parts of Cape Province are dominated by nama-karoo, which grades into succulent karoo to the west, and extends to the west coast (Cape Province). In the far south-east of the country (Cape Province), the coast and inland hills are dominated by fynbos. The forest biome has a very patchy distribution on the mountains and on the coastal plains of the southern and eastern parts of the country.

The fynbos biome encompasses a broad category of evergreen sclerophyllous heathlands and shrublands dominated by fine-leaved low shrubs and leafless tufted grasslike plants of the family Restionaceae. The succulent karoo is made up of open to sparse succulent shrubland dominated by stem and leaf succulents and some fine-leaved shrubs. Both these biomes are almost entirely restricted to South Africa. With their high diversity and high degree of endemicity they have a high conservation importance.

Most of the natural vegetationa is grazed. This inevitably produces major changes to the natural ecosystems: the natural large herbivores are gone from most areas and there are major vegetation changes including bush encroachment over vast areas and reduction in grass cover or replacement by unpalatable species. The entire karoo and large areas of the adjacent eastern Cape are still considered to be overstocked, leading to soil erosion and other factors which, in the long run, reduce the overall carrying capacity of the land. Arable cultivation outside the homelands takes up some 12.3% of the land area % this tends to be concentrated in certain areas and in the coastal lowlands of the Natal natural ecosystems which occur now only as small isolated fragments. Natural forests only cover some 1.9% of the total land area. In other areas some land is turned over to plantation forestry, some localised problems are occurring, with major reductions in run-off to some rivers. The invasion of alien plant species is a problem in Transvaal, and in the coastal lowlands of Natal and more especially in the fynbos biome. Existing urban areas cover some 2.5% of the country, while agricultural smallholdings cover a further 3%. There are a large number of major reservoirs. These only pose a major threat to biodiversity in the fynbos biome where there are large numbers of endemic species with limited distributions. Mining has been one of themajor industries contributing to the development of South Africa and in places it has radically transformed the landscape (Macdonald, 1989).

There are few wetlands of great magnitude, with the exception of the St Lucia system in the north-east of the country. The remaining wetlands, although small, are very important as much of the surroundings are predominantly dry. Most of these sites are coastal: estuarine systems, lakes, swamps, marshes, floodplains and pans. On the high mountain areas in the south-east there are extensive `sponges' and peat bogs. On the central plateau there are many seasonal pans, endorrheic lakes and some small, irregularly inundated floodplains (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). True coral reefs do not occur in South African waters. However, in the subtropical waters of the Maputaland coast conditions do favour the development of coral reef communities which are virtually indistinguishable from true reefs. These communities are largely unspoiled % they all fall within proclaimed marine reserves and hence are well protected (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Most coastal islands are now protected breeding localities for seals and seabirds, although the protected areas exclude most of the marine environment used by these animals (Hall-Martin, 1990).

Conservation in South Africa has a long history. Concern was first expressed about the loss of forests in the Cape in the first half of the 19th century and some protection was provided in February 1856, when conservancies were set up in the forests of the George region. A Chief Botanist of the Cape Colony was appointed in 1859 who had a major role in promoting conservation issues. The Forest and Herbage Preservation Act No. 18, 1859 was the most comprehensive form of conservation legislation passed in the British colonies that century. Around the same time, the government had begun to set up what were effectively the first `state' game reserves in the Krysna and Tsitsikamme forests, although there was conflict here between the Forest Conservator, and the local landowners. Two of the strongest arguments facilitating the development of conservation were those of soil conservation and the safeguarding of water supplies through forestry. There then followed a period from 1866 when conservation issues were considered less important, and much of the forest was destroyed by various agricultural and commercial interests (Grove, 1987). A resolution by the State President, approved in 1889, led to the proclamation of the first official state game reserve in 1894 on the Swaziland border, known today as Pongola Nature Reserve in Transvaal; two were established in Pretoria in 1895; and five game reserves were established in Zululand (Natal) in that same year. From 1887, forest reserves were being established in the west of the country and by the end of the 19th century, 355,559ha of forest reserve had been declared in the Cape. New protected areas were added to the network at a fairly constant rate of about one per year from 1895 to 1965. This rate has increased markedly since 1966. The increase in area covered by this network is more irregular, with massive increases in certain years caused by the declaration of certain particularly large sites (Greyling and Huntley, 1984). There are now some 574 publicly owned nature reserves covering some 7.2 million ha or 5.8% of the land area. In addition, there are quite a large number of privately-owned reserves, bringing the total of reserved land to more than 6% (Siegfried, 1989). In 1984, the total area administered by the Directorate ofForestry was 1,970,000ha, made up of 1,350,000ha of state forest in the conservation forest categories and 620,000ha of mountain catchment areas on private land (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

The most recent moves to expand the protected areas network include efforts to involve the cooperation of local landowners. Examples of this include the contractual national parks system incorporated into the 1983 amendment to the National Parks Act (see Policy and Legislation), the establishment of biosphere reserves, the system of conservancies introduced in Natal (see Administration and Management) and Transvaal, the establishment of mountain catchment areas, and the two systems now in operation under the South African Plan for Nature Conservation: the South African Natural Heritage Programme and the Sites of Conservation Significance Programme.

The South African Natural Heritage Programme was launched in November 1984 with the specific aim of extending and improving the protected areas network by incorporating private land. It was established by the Directorate of Environmental Affairs with several other bodies being involved, including the four provincial nature conservation authorities, the National Parks Board, the Directorate of Forestry and the private sector, through the Southern African Nature Foundation. The most important participants are private landowners, individuals and organisations, who are being encouraged to register sites as part of the programme. To qualify for registration, sites must contain one or more of the following: stands of special plant communities; good examples of aquatic habitats; sensitive catchment areas; habitats of threatened species or outstanding natural features. Registered sites may be visited periodically by representatives of the Department of Environmental Affairs. Management assistance is available for sites, provided by provincial authorities. Sites may be taken off the register by the Minister if they are destroyed or degraded, whilst landowners themselves may de-register sites, but are asked to give 60 days notice (Cohen, n.d; Cowan, 1990). Less important sites may also be registered as part of the Sites of Conservation Significance Programme, initiated by the Natal Parks Board and launched in March 1989. South Africa also has a large number of privately-owned reserves: these include the Timbavati group of unfenced private game reserves in the eastern Transvaal which are the largest in the world, and are largely financed by tourism, although sport-hunting also occurs in some of them (Anon., 1990b).

The South African Defence Force is also a major landholder, and controls 60 areas which together cover some 525,000ha. Efforts are being made to improve the conservation status of these areas, soil erosion is being combatted, and some species have been reintroduced. Much of this work is being conducted in consultation with the Wildlife Society of South Africa (Cooper, 1987).

Of the seven major biomes found in South Africa, three are very poorly represented in protected areas: succulent karoo (0.79% of the biome area is protected); Nama-karoo (0.83%) and grassland (2.00%). Moist savanna is also not particularly well protected; 5% of its total area. The other three biomes are well-represented: arid savanna (12.11%); fynbos (26.26%) and forest (77.36%). There are still gaps in theprotected areas network within these categories. Despite repeated calls to redress the balance, there has been no major response to increase the area of protected karoo and grassland (Siegfried, 1989). A detailed analysis of biodiversity at the national level, and proposals for conservation is given in Huntley (1989). Proposals to improve the protected area system are also given in MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986) and IUCN (1987).

Prince Edward Islands are oceanic islands of volcanic origin. They have a tundra type of vegetation, with mires and tussock grassland rising to wind desert on the slopes. There are no permanent inhabitants on the islands. However, a permanent presence has been established for scientific and meteorological work, as a part of the South African Scientific Community for Antarctic Research. While there are no protected areas on these islands, most of the important fauna is protected under the Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act (Act 46 of 1973). Membership of the Antarctic Treaty, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research also implies acceptance of certain conservation orientated agreements and recommendations for these islands (Greyling and Huntley, 1984).

Addresses

National Parks Board of Trustees (Chief Director), Head Office, PO Box 787, PRETORIA 0001 (Tel: 12 343 9772; FAX: 12 343 0907; Tlx: 321324 SA)

Department of Environment Affairs (Director General), Private Bag X447, PRETORIA 0001

Directorate of Forestry (Director-General), Department of Environmental Affairs, Private Bag X447, PRETORIA 0001

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Program for the Environment, PO Box 395, PRETORIA (Tel: 12 841 2911)

South African Natural Heritage Programme (Coordinator), Department of Environment Affairs, Private Bag X447, PRETORIA 0001

National Botanical Institute (NBI) (Chief Director), Kirstenbosch, Private Bag X7, CLAREMONT 7735 (Tel: 21 762 1166; FAX: 21 762 3229).

Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board (Director), PO Box 662, PIETERMARITZBURG 3200, Natal

Chief Directorate of Nature and Environmental Conservation (Chief Director), Transvaal Provincial Administration, Private Bag X209, PRETORIA 0001

Cape Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation (Director), Private Bag X9086, CAPE TOWN 8000

Orange Free State Nature and Environmental Conservation Directorate (Chief Director), PO Box 517, BLOEMFONTEIN 9300

National states

Nature Conservation Subdirectorate (Deputy Director), Department of Cooperation and Development, PO Box 384, PRETORIA 0001 (enquiries will be routed to the national states concerned)

Antarctic Division (Director General), Department of Transport, Private Bag X193,PRETORIA 0001

Bophuthatswana: National Parks and Wildlife Management Board (Director), Private Bag X2078, 20c Warren Street, MAFEKING 8670, Bophuthatswana (Tel: 01401 32582/3/4/5/6/7; Tlx: 3110 BP)

Ciskei: Department of Agriculture and Forestry (Director General), Private Bag X501, ZWELITSHA 5600, Republic of Ciskei

Transkei: Department of Agriculture and Forestry (Director), Private Bag X5002, UMTATA, Republic of Transkei

Venda: Department of Agriculture and Forestry (Secretary), Private Bag X2247, SIBASA, Republic of Venda

The Wildlife Society of Southern Africa (Director), Conservation Division, 100 Brand Road, DURBAN 4001 (Tel: 31 210909; FAX: 31 219525)

Southern African Nature Foundation, PO Box 456, STELLENBOSCH 7600 (Tel: 2231 72801; FAX: 79517)

References

Acocks, J.P.H. (1975) Veld types of South Africa. Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 40: 1-128. (Unseen)

Anon. (n.d.). A Guide to the Nature Conservation Ordinance of the Transvaal (12 of 1983). Nature Conservation Division, Pretoria. 26 pp.

Anon. (1972). XIII/1 % General Forest Legislation, South Africa. Food and Agricultural Legislation, XXI. FAO, Rome. P. 81.

Anon. (1976). XIX/4 % National parks and nature reserves, South Africa % Act No. 57 of 1976: National Parks Act, 1976. Food and Agricultural Legislation, XXV. FAO, Rome. Pp. 111-112.

Anon. (1984). Environmental research perspectives in South Africa. South African National Scientific Programmes Report No. 84. Pretoria. 77 pp.

Anon. (n.d., post 1987). National parks in South Africa, policy statement of the National Parks Board of Trustees.

Anon. (1988). WWF-South Africa. WWF Conservation Yearbook 1987/1988. Pp. 639-646.

Anon. (1990). South Africa. Gnusletter. P. 14.

Anon. (1990b). Exclusive conservation. South African Panorama 35(1): 50-59.

Anon. (1991). Southern African Facts Sheet 140. Southern African Editorial Services CC. 6 pp.

Armstrong, S. (1991). Pride and prejudice. World magazine. Pp. 51-56.

Bainbridge, W.R., Motsamai, B. and Weaver, L.C. (1989). Draft policy statement for a managed resource area for the Maluti Mountains of Lesotho. Ministry of agriculture, Cooperatives and Marketing, Government of the Kingdom of Lesotho. 55 pp.

Botha, P.R. and Huntley, B.J. (1989). Outlines of a national environmental policy for South Africa. In: Huntley, B.J. (Ed.), Biotic diversity in Southern Africa, concepts and conservation. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Pp. 330-333. (Unseen)

Bruton, N.M. (1980). Conservation and development in Maputaland. In: Bruton, M.N. and Cooper, K.H. (Eds.), Studies on the ecology of Maputaland. RhodesUniversity, Grahamstown and the Wildlife Society, Durban. Pp. 497-529. (Unseen)

Cohen, M. (n.d.). The South African Natural Heritage Programme.

Collinson, R. (1985). Regionalisation of N.P.B. National parks and wildlife management in Bophuthatswana. Tshomarelo News 22: 5.

Collinson, R. (1987). Directions. National parks and wildlife management in Bophuthatswana. Tshomarelo News 38: 3-5.

Cooper, K. (1987). The South African defence force's role in nature conservation. African Wildlife 41(6): 290-291.

Cowan, G.I. (1990). Annual Report on the Southern African Plan for Nature conservation; the South African Natural Heritage Programme. Department of Environmental Affairs, Sub Directorate: natural environment. Unpublished.

Cowling, R.M. Gibbs Russell, G.E., Hoffman, M.T. and Hilton-Taylor, C. (1989). Patterns of plant species diversity in southern Africa. In: Huntley, B.J. (Ed.), Biotic diversity in Southern Africa, concepts and conservation. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Pp. 19-50.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregorson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Villa-Lobos, J.L., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Pp. 324-330.

Deacon, J. (1990). Environmental educators. South African Panorama 35(6): 26-33.

Glazewski, J. (1989). The Kruger Park Conference and the Environment Conservation Bill. African Wildlife 43(6): 12-13.

Greyling, T. and Huntley, B.J. (Eds) (1984). Directory of southern African conservation areas. South African National Scientific Programmes. Report No. 98. CSIR, Pretoria.

Grove, R. (1987). Early themes in African conservation: the Cape in the nineteenth century. In: Anderson, D. and Grove, R. (Eds), Conservation in Africa, people, policies and practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 21-39.

Hall-Martin, A. (1990). South African National Committee for the IUCN, Conservation Report 1988-1990. Compiled for the 18th series of the IUCN General Assembly, 28 November-5 December 1990, Perth, Australia.

Hockey, P.A.R. and Buxton, C.D. (1989). Conserving biotic diversity on southern Africa's coastline. In: Huntley, B.J. (Ed.), Biotic diversity in Southern Africa, concepts and conservation. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Pp. 298-309.

Hoogervorst, A. (1986). EIA for country. Environment RSA 13(10): 13.

Hughes, R.H. and Hughes, J.S. (1991). Directory of African wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

Huntley, B.J. and Ellis, S. (1983). Conservation status of terrestrial ecosystems in southern Africa. Working document prepared by CSIR, Pretoria.

Huntley, B.J. (Ed.) (1989). Biotic diversity in Southern Africa, concepts and conservation. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. 380 pp.

IUCN (1987). Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical Realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. P. 46.

MacDonald, I.A.W. (1989). Man's role in the changing face of Southern Africa. In: Huntley, B.J. (Ed.), Biotic diversity in Southern Africa, concepts and conservation. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Pp. 51-78.

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas system in the Afrotropical Realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 259 pp.

Natal Parks Board (n.d.). A series of pamphlets, including the following titles: Reserve Management Operations, Board Operations Outside Reserves, Indigenous Plants and the Law in Natal and the Sportsman's Guide to Hunting in Natal. Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

Siegfried, W.R. (1989). Preservation of species in Southern African nature reserves. In: Huntley, B.J. (Ed.), Biotic diversity in Southern Africa, concepts and conservation. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Pp. 185-201.

Stuart, S.N., and Adams, R.J. (1990). Biodiversity in Sub-saharan Africa and its islands: conservation, management and sustainable use. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 186-196.

Thomson, R. (1984). The New National Parks Board. Nature conservation in Bophuthatswana. Tshomarelo News 19: 2-5.

Thomson, R. (1986). The parks and wildlife estate. National parks and wildlife management in Bophuthatswana. Tshomarelo News 29: 3-6.

UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 317-321.

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,

together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Environment Conservation Act (No. 73)

Date: 1989

Brief description: No information

Administrative authority: Department of Environment Affairs (Director General)

Designations:

Protected natural environment No information

Special nature reserve No information

Source: Hall-Martin, 1990

Title: National Parks Act No. 57

Date: 6 April 1976, amended to 1987

Brief description: Revises the National Parks Act, 1962. Makes provision for the designation and management of national parks, and for the constitution and work of the National Parks Board of Trustees.

Administrative authority: National Parks Board (Chief Director)

Designations:

National park "The object of the constitution of a national park is the establishment, preservation and study therein of wild animal, marine and plant life and objects of geological, archaeological, historical, ethnological, oceanographic, educational and other scientific interest, and objects relating to the said life or the first-mentioned objects or to events in, or the history of, the park, in such a manner that the area which constitutes the park shall, as far as may be and for the benefit and enjoyment of visitors, be retained in its natural state" (Art. 4). "No prospecting or mining of any nature shall be undertaken in a park" (Art. 20). There is a long list of prohibitions which generally aim at preventing disturbance of the natural environment of the parks. There are detailed provisions concerning prosecution and judicial procedure and prescribing fines, imprisonment, corporal punishment and forfeitures for different offences under the Act.

Sources: Anon, 1976; Anon, n.d., post-1987

Title: Lake Areas Development Act No. 39

Date: 1975

Brief description: Provides for the establishment of lake areas

Administrative authority: National Parks Board (Chief Director)

Designations:

National lake area No information

Source: Hall-Martin, 1990

Title: Forest Act No. 122

Date: 1984, with a major amendment, the Forest Amendment Act No. 53, 1991

Brief description: Gives the terms of establishment for the Directorate of Forestry. Provides for the designation of conservation forest and of further categories within these areas: protection forests, nature reserves, or wilderness areas.

Administrative authority: Directorate of Forestry, Department of Environmental Affairs (Director- General)

Designations:

Conservation forest (or State forest) Management objectives cover a wide range of options, both between and within conservation areas, ranging from strict protection to full scale tourist use and timber exploitation.

Protection forest No information

Nature reserve No information

Wilderness area No information

Sources: Anon., 1972; Greyling and Huntley, 1984

Title: Mountain Catchment Areas Act No. 63

Date: 1970

Brief description: Aims to provide for the conservation, use, management and control of land situated in the mountain catchment areas, and to provide for matters incidental thereto.

Administrative authority: Directorate of Forestry, Department of Environment Affairs (Director-General)

Designations:

Mountain catchment area No information

Source: Hall-Martin, 1990

Title: Sea Fisheries Act No. 58 and accompanying Sea Fisheries Regulations

Date: 1973

Brief description: Covers aspects of exploitation such as bag limits, sizes andseasons and also protection of certain areas through the declaration of marine reserves.

Administrative authority: Chief Directorate: Sea Fisheries, Department of Environment Affairs (Director-General)

Designations:

Marine reserve No information

Source: Hall-Martin, 1990

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xx+352pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 2: Palaearctic. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxviii+556pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 3: Afrotropical. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxii+360pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv+460pp.