IUCN Management Category II (National Park)

X (World Heritage Site)

Biogeographical Province 3.14.07 (Somalian)

Geographical Location The national park and forest reserve occupy the whole of Mount Kilimanjaro and its surrounding montane forests, and lie in the North of Tanzania, between Moshi and the Kenyan border. The national park comprises the whole of the mountain above the tree line, and six forest corridors which stretch down through the montane forest belt. The whole complex lies at 2°50'-3°20'S, 37°00'-37°35'E.

Date and History of Establishment Mt Kilimanjaro and the surrounding forests were declared a game reserve by the German colonial government in the early part of this century, and this area was further gazetted as a forest reserve in 1921. This designation has been confirmed by the legislation of subsequent administrations. Part of the area was reclassified as a national park in 1973 by Government Notice 54. Designated a World Heritage site in 1987.

Area 75,575ha, surrounded by a Forest Game Reserve of 89,000ha

Land Tenure Government

Altitude 1,830m (Marangu Gate) to 5,895m (summit of Kibo)

Physical Features Kilimanjaro is a volcanic massif (last showing signs of major activity in the Pleistocene) which is not only the highest mountain in Africa, rising 4877m above the surrounding plains to 5895m, but also one of the largest volcanoes in the world, covering an area of some 388,500ha. There are three main volcanic peaks of varying ages lying on an east-south-east axis, and a number of smaller parasitic cones. To the west, the oldest peak (Shira) rises to 4000m, though only the western and southern rims remain. The remains of the northern and eastern flanks are covered by later material from Kibo, which has led to the formation of a relatively flat upland plateau covering some 6200ha between the two peaks. The rugged erosion-shattered peak of Mawenzi lies to the east (rising to 5149m). Its western face is fairly steep at the top with many crags and pinnacles, however the topography on its eastern side is much more spectacular, being precipitous for over 1000m with a complex of gullies and rock faces, and rising above two deep gorges, the Great Barranco and the Lesser Barranco. Kibo, which is the most recent in origin and still shows minor fumarole activity in the centre, consists of two concentric craters with an ash pit in the middle. The highest point on the mountain is on the southern rim of the outer crater, the opposite sides of which are some 2km apart. Between Kibo and Mawenzi there is a plateau of some 3600ha, known as the Saddle, which forms the largest area of high altitude tundra in tropical Africa. The predominant rock types on both Shira and Mawenzi are trachybasalts, while the later lava flows on Kibo show a gradual change from trachyandesite to nephelinite. Structure of the material varied with time, however, and different flows have produced a variety of different rock types. There are also a number of intrusions, such as the radial dyke-swarms of Mawenzi or the Shira Ridge. Parasitic cones, chiefly formed of ash and cinder, occur in groups or zones. Kibo still retains permanent ice and snow (although the area covered has been diminishing for some years), and one glacier extends down to 4500m. Mawenzi also has patches of semi-permanent ice, and substantial accumulations of seasonal snow and ice. Evidence of past glaciation is present on all three peaks, with morainic debris found as low as 3,600m.

Climate There are two wet seasons, November to December and March to May, and the driest months are August to October. Rainfall decreases rapidly with increase in altitude; mean precipitation is 2300mm in the forest belt (1,830m), 1300mm at Mandara hut at the upper edge of the forest (2,740m), 525mm at Horombo hut in the moorland (3,718m), and less than 200mm at Kibo hut (4,630m), producing desert-like conditions. Winds are predominantly from the southeast, and the north slopes receive far less rainfall. Diurnal temperature range is considerable at the higher altitudes. Mist frequently envelopes much of the massif.

Vegetation The major vegetation types represented on Mount Kilimanjaro could loosely be termed montane forest, moorland, upland moor, alpine bogs, and alpine desert (Greenway, 1965), although not all of the montane forest zone is currently within the national park. There is no bamboo zone, nor a Hagenia-Hypericum zone. Above about 4,600m, very few plants are able to survive the severe conditions, although specimens of Helichrysum newii have been recorded as high as 5,760m (close to a fumarole), and mosses and lichens are found right up to the summit. The upland moor consists primarily of heath/scrub plants, with Erica arborea, Philippia trimera, Adenocarpus mannii, Protea kilimandscharica, Stoebe kilimandscharica, Myrica meyeri-johannis, and Myrsine africana. Grasses are abundant in places, and Cyperaceae form the dominant ground cover in wet hollows. On flatter areas between the upland moor and the forest edge are areas of moorland or upland grassland composed of Agrostis producta, Festuca convoluta, Koeleria gracilis, Deschampsia sp., Exotheca abyssinica, Andropogon amethystinus, and A. kilimandscharicum, with scattered bushes of Adenocarpus mannii, Kotschya recurvifolia and Myrica Meyeri-johannis. Various species of the genus Helichrysum are found in the grasslands, and in the upland moor. Two distinct forms of giant groundsel occur on upper Mount Kilimanjaro, Senecio johnstonii subsp. cottonii, which is endemic to the mountain and only occurs above 3600m, and subsp. johnstonii which occurs between 2,450m and 4,000m, and shows two distinct forms (once described as two seperate species). At all altitudes Senecio favours the damper and more sheltered locations, and in the alpine bogs is associated with another conspicuous plant Lobelia deckenii. Below the tree line, the park includes six corridors through the montane forest belt which circles the mountain between 1,520m and 2,740m. Forest components are complex and vary greatly with aspect. The wetter southern slopes are dominated by Podocarpus spp. and camphorwood Ocotea usambarensis with Myrica salicifolia and Agauria sp., and an understory of ferns such as tree ferns Cyathea spp. and the long-spiked Lobelia gibberoa. The drier northern slopes are dominated by cedar Juniperus procera and olives Olea spp..

Fauna Above the treeline quite a number of mammal species are recorded (Child, 1965), although it is likely that many of these also use the lower montane forest habitat. Apart from rodents, especially at times of population explosion, the most frequently encountered mammals above the treeline are grey duiker Sylvicapra grimmia and eland Taurotragus oryx, which occur in the moorland, with bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and red duiker Cephalophus natalensis being found above the treeline in places, and elephant Loxodonta africana (T) and buffalo Syncerus caffer occasionally moving out of the forest into the moorland and grassland. Several species of rodent and insectivore occur above the tree line, although golden moles (Chrysochloridae) are absent. Bird species of the upper zones are also few in number, although they include occasional lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus (mainly on the Shira ridge), hill chat Cercomela sordida, Hunter's cisticola Cisticola hunteri, and scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird Nectarinia johnstoni. Raven Corvus albicollis is the most conspicuous bird species at higher altitude. Three species of primate are found within the montane forests, blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis, black and white colobus Colobus polykomos abyssinicus,

and Galago crassicaudatus. Other species of mammal include leopard Panthera pardus (T), black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis (T)(probably now extinct in this area), mountain reedbuck Redunca fulvorufula, and Kilimanjaro tree hyrax Dendrohyrax validus, as well as those species listed above. Abbot's duiker Cephalophus spadix is restricted to Kilimanjaro and some neighbouring mountains. The forest has several notable bird species including Abbot's starling Cinnyricinclus femoralis, which has a very restricted distribution. The butterfly Papilio sjoestedti (R), sometimes known as the Kilimanjaro swallowtail, is restricted to Kilimanjaro, Ngorongoro and Mount Meru, although the subspecies atavus is only found on Kilimanjaro.

Cultural Heritage No information

Local Human Population No information

Visitors and Visitor Facilities The national park has been developed with tourism in mind, and approximately 67,000 people visit the park each year. Visitors are allowed to climb to 4,000m without a guide. Permission from the Chief Warden is necessary for using other routes, and is restricted mainly to the organized 4-5 night climb to Kibo via the Marangu route which stops at Mandara, Horombo and Kibo huts: food, bedding and porters are provided. The starting point at Marangu (48km from Moshi and 90km from Kilimanjaro International Airport) has hotel and hostel accommodation. Some climbing huts have also been established on other routes. There is a mountain rescue team.

Scientific Research and Facilities A variety of scientific studies have been conducted within the park, although there are no special facilities. In particular should be mentioned the long term geological, hydrological and vulcanological research by the Geology Department of the University of Tanzania and Sheffield University in the United Kingdom. There is important potential for further work, in particular in biology and in the relation between glaciology and world climate. The College of African Wildlife Management at Mweka, and its facilities, is relatively close.

Conservation Value No information

Conservation Management Although protection is total within the park, and access is restricted, management is still not entirely adequate for the reasons given below. Within the forest reserve exploitive activity has continued, although this has now been curtailed by Presidential Decree (1984) and the issuing of timber licences has been stopped. Discussions are also continuing between the Wildlife and Forestry Departments to try to organise control of illegal felling in the area. There is a management plan for the mountain, but this is now more than ten years old, and does not include the forest reserve. The six forest corridors which run through the forest reserve (Geraragua and Shira on the west, Marangu and Mashati on the east, and Njara and Rongai on the north), come under the joint administration of National Park and Forest Division administrations. It is intended that all natural forest surrounding the park should eventually be included within its boundaries, and this has apparently been agreed to by the government.

Management Constraints As in many other parks and reserves in Africa, resources are stretched, and manpower and equipment is not sufficient for full implementation of management in the area. Most difficulties are encountered in the management and protection of the montane forest, with illegal hunting, honey gathering, felling, fuel wood collection, grass burning and incursions by domestic livestock, particularly in the south-west. Both honey gathering and grass burning result in outbreaks of uncontrolled fires every year, particularly during the dry season. As with moorland in many parts of the world, fire is almost certainly one of the ecological factors that has influenced the mountain biota for hundreds of years, and management (or non-management) of fire is likely to continue presenting problems. Tomlinson (1986) expressed concern that the frequency of fire on the Shira Plateau was increasing, and that this might pose a threat to the populations of giant

groundsel. Problems also result from the heavy use of the area by tourists. The forest buffer zone is being maintained in six corridors within the park, but elsewhere felling has continued, and there has been some replacement with commercial plantations (camphor and Acrocarpus) or maize crops, although this has been halted at least temporarily by the 1984 Presidential Decree.

Staff No current information. In 1977 the establishment was a senior park warden, building inspector, and a staff of 80.

Budget Kilimanjaro was reported in 1984 to be the only park in Tanzania which approached self-sufficiency, paying for much of its administrative and management costs from the revenue accrued from tourism. A subsidy is also received from the Government, and assistance provided by other local and foreign organisations.

Local Addresses

Senior Park Warden, PO Box 96, Marangu. Tanzania National Parks, PO Box 3134, Arusha.

References

Child, G.S. (1965). Some notes on Mammals of Mount Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes and Records 64: 77-89.

Coutts, H.H. (1969). Rainfall of the Kilimanjaro area. Weather 24: 66-69.

Gilbert, V.C. (1970). Plants of Kilimanjaro. Typed report. Office of Environmental Interpretation, U.S. National Park Service, Washington D.C.

Greenway, P.J. (1965). The Vegetation and Flora of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes and Records 64: 77-89.

Hutchinson, J.A. (1965). Kilimanjaro. Tanzania Notes and Records 64. Special Kilamanjaro issue.

Lamprey, H.F. (1965). Birds of the Forest and Alpine Zones of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes and Records 64: 69-76.

Morris, B. (1970). The zonal vegetation of Kilimanjaro. African Wildlife 24 pp.

Mwasaga, B.C. (1983). Vegetation/Environment Relationships, Kiraragua Catchment Area, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. MSc Thesis, University of Dar es Salam.

National Park Service (1967). Kilimanjaro; Survey for proposed Mount Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania, East Africa. Survey conducted by the U.S. National Park Service for the United Republic of Tanzania.

Salt, G. (1954). A contribution to the Ecology of Upper Kilimanjaro. Journal of Ecology 42: 375-423.

Sampson, D.N. (1965). The Geology, Volcanology and Glaciology of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes and Records 64: 118-124.

Tanzania National Parks (1976). Mount Kilimanjaro National Park Master Plan. Tanzania National Parks, Arusha.

Tomlinson, R. (1985). Observations on the Giant Groundsels of Upper Kilimanjaro. Biological Conservation 31: 303-316.

Wilcockson, W.H. (1956). Preliminary notes on the geology of Kilimanjaro. Geol. Mag. 93(3): 218-228.

Wilkinson, P. (1954). Preliminary note on the state of volcanicity of Kilimanjaro. Geol. Survey, Tanganyika.

Date June 1987

0220P