NAME Great Smoky Mountains National Park

IUCN MANAGEMENT CATEGORY

II (National Park)

Biosphere Reserve

Natural World Heritage Site - Criteria i, ii, iii, iv

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE 1.05.05 (Eastern Forest)

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Lies at the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains in eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. Bounded by the Little Tennessee River to the south, French Broad River to the north and Pigeon River to the east. Surrounded by parts of several national forests, an Indian reservation, a Tennessee Valley Authority lake and numerous private holdings. Gatlinburg (Tennessee) lies close to the north entrance and Cherokee (North Carolina), the south entrance. 35°26'-35°47'N, 83°45'-84°00'W

DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT Gazetted a national park on 22 May 1926 (44 Stat. 616). Accepted as a biosphere reserve in 1976, and in November 1988 was incorporated in the Southern Appalacian Biosphere Reserve; a distinct biosphere reserve cluster comprising Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Coweeta Hydrological Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Environmental Park. Two additional units were added to the cluster in 1992, namely Mount Mitchell State Park and Grandfather Mountain, making the total area 6,416,545ha. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1983.

AREA 209,000ha

LAND TENURE Federal government

ALTITUDE Ranges from 259m to 2,025m

PHYSICAL FEATURES The park's dominant topographic feature is the Great Smoky Mountains range with peaks over 1,818m. In a broader aspect, the topography comprises moderately sharp-crested, steep-sided ridges separated by deep V-shaped valleys. Many of the mountain ridges branch and subdivide from the central ridgeline, creating a complex of drainage systems with 3,057km of fast-flowing clear mountain streams. The park contains 45 watersheds and the water table is near the surface in almost all sections. Precambrian metamorphic rocks consisting of gneisses and schists, and sedimentary rocks of the Precambrian Ocoee series are predominant, while younger sedimentary rocks are found in the Appalachian Valley.

CLIMATE Mean annual temperature for Gatlinburg is 13.7°C, but the average temperature is 5°-10°C cooler at higher altitudes, with warm humid summers and relatively mild winters. Mean annual precipitation is 1625mm, although differences in average annual precipitation of more than 600mm have been recorded between a peak and valley only 15km apart. Snow accumulations may reach 1.2m at 1,500m, but are negligible below 1,000m.

VEGETATION The deeply dissected landscape present at the southern end of the Appalachian chain provided a refuge for a host of temperate and boreal species during Pleistocene glaciation. This has resulted in a rich vegetation mosaic comprising approximately 1,500 species of flowering plants, including 130 trees, and an estimated 2,200 cryptogamous taxa. Approximately 20% of the park's forest is high in 'virgin' attributes (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995). Areas which were farmed or logged have been recovering for varying periods of time and now represent a range of successional stages. Deciduous broad-leaved and evergreen coniferous forests predominate, but treeless grass and heath balds, open wet meadows and cliffs communities also occur. Vegetation changes continuously with elevation, slope, aspect and topographic position.

Fourteen major forest types are currently recognised within the park. On mesic sites, low and mid-elevation cove hardwood (mixed mesophytic) and hemlock-hardwood forest grade, with increasing elevation, into northern hardwoods and finally, at about 1,500m, into spruce-fir. On a gradient from mesic to xeric, the cove hardwoods are replaced by mixed oak, xeric oak, and oak-pine. Heath balds represent the xeric extreme at higher elevations and are dominated by ericaceous shrubs such as Rhododenron catawbiense, R. minus, Kalmia latifolia and Leiophyllum buxfolium. Perhaps the most notable forest types are cove hardwood and spruce-fir. The former may contain over 20 different species in the canopy at any one site. Dominants often include Liriodendron tulipifera, Halesia carolina, Acer saccharum, Aesculus octandra and Prunus serotina. One single tenth-hectare plot may support in excess of 50 species throughout the year. Spruce-fir forest type only occurs at the highest elevations and contains the largest contiguous block of virgin Picea rubens on earth. About 75% of all Southern Appalachian spruce-fir occurs within the park. Additionally, grass balds, ridges, cliffs and landslide scars within these high elevation forests support the growth of rare regional endemics. Fifteen plants are listed as candidates for federal protection as threatened or endangered species. Moreover, 120 species are recognised as rare enough to be of managerial concern. A similar number of bryophytes, lichens and fungi are also considered rare at either the regional, national, or global level.

FAUNA Reflecting the richness of the flora, the diverse fauna includes at least 50 native mammals. With the exception of black bear Ursus americanus, white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus and introduced wild boar Sus scrofa, large mammals are not encountered. However, there are many medium sized mammals including red fox Vulpes fulva, grey fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus, racoon Procyon lotor, opossum Didelphis marsupialis, woodchuck Marmota monax and bobcat Lynx rufus. Several squirrels are seen including eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus, red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, grey squirrel Sciurus carolinensis and two types of flying squirrel, the southern Glaucomys volans and the northern endangered subspecies Carolina flying squirrel G. sabrinus coloratus (E). Other smaller mammals include muskrat Ondatra zibethicus, cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus floridanus, and a number of mice, mole and shrew species. Beaver Castor canadensis, apparently once common here, are beginning to reappear in several valleys. Mustelids include long-tailed weasel Mustela frenata, mink M. vision, and skunks. River otter Lutra canadensis has beensuccessfully reintroduced. Several species of bats inhabit the park; the threatened Indiana bat Myotis sodalis (V) is known to use at least three of the park's caves as a winter roost. There have been several recent, but unconfirmed, sightings of puma Felis concolor. Bison Bison bison and elk or wapiti Cervus elaphus were extirpated by the early 1800's. Although there are no plans at present to reintroduce bison, preliminary work has been initiated to determine the feasibility of reintroducing elk. Grey wolf Canis lupus (V), fisher Martes pennanti and red wolf Canis rufus (E) formerly occurred here, and the latter is currently being reintroduced (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995). Recently, coyote Canis latrans has migrated naturally to the park.

Over 200 species of birds have been observed, including many species of warblers, flycatchers and other migratory songbirds. Over 60 permanent residents including ruffed grouse Bonasa umbellus and wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo can be seen all year round. Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus has been reintroduced. Red-cockaded woodpecker Picoides borealis had been observed nesting, but has not been seen since the early 1980's and the species has probably become extinct due to fire supression. Some habitats in the park contain bird communities with an unusually high percentage of species that are neo-tropical migrants, a group that has declined significantly in North America in recent decades. As the largest unfragmented forest left in the eastern U.S., park bird populations may be stable, in part due to avoidance of cowbird Molothrus ater, a prolific nest parasite (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).

Reptile species include seven turtles, eight lizards and 23 snakes. Heavy precipitation and numerous streams make the mountains ideal for a wide variety of amphibian species including about 30 salamander, two toads and at least ten frogs. For its size, the park has one of the richest salamander faunas in the world with species that vary from the endemic pigmy salamander Desmognathus wrightii, to the aquatic hellbender Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. Over 40 species of native fish inhabit the streams, including eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontalis (the park's population may be a separate and threatened subspecies) (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995). Other threatened fish species include smoky madtom Noturus baileyi, yellow-fin madtom N. flavipinnis (V) and spotfin chub Hybopsis nonacha, which are currently being reintroduced into the park.

The park also contains a diversity of invertebrates, especially land snails, spiders, insects and other arthropods, that are not well known. The park is thought to be a regional or continental centre of diversity for several of these groups. Over 100 species of caddisflies and stoneflies are found, including stonefly endemics such as Megaloptera williamsi, Hansonoperla appalachia, several Capnia species and Acroneuria lycorias (found only in Sevier County). Over 800 Lepidopteran species have been recorded. Most groups reveal a complex assortment of forms that often include species endemic to the park and/or new to science.

CULTURAL HERITAGE Archaeological sites support the theory that prehistoric people (15,000 years ago) were hunters and gatherers. Present historical and cultural interpretation in the park is based mainly on structures dating from the middle 1800s to 1920, including the finest collection of log buildings in the United States. The National Register of Historic Places includes three historic districts, four structures and 29 buildings.

LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION No information

VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES The park records about 8.8 million recreational visits each year and is the most visited national park in the country (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995). Use of camping grounds, trailer parks, hotels and other infrastructure are now encouraged outside the park. Facilities within the park include three visitor centres, ten campgrounds (three primitive), and 18 shelters along the Appalachian Trail and other back country trails (668km), ten picnic areas, numerous backcountry campsites and over 1,448km of trails. The parks conducts an active visitor services programme which primarily interprets the natural and cultural resources of the area and provides visitor information. There are six amphitheatres and one campfire circle. A wide variety of publications and interpretive literature about the park is made available by the Great Smoky Mountains Natural History Association. This association also operates the Great Smoky Mountains Institute, which is a live-in facility that accommodates 120 people and offers environmental education programmes for school groups, teacher workshops, adult programmes, elderhostels etc.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES Many scientific inventories are planned or underway, and the park is setting up a long-term monitoring program for selected species and communities focused on biodiversity issues. Numerous research projects are undertaken each year by academic institutions, other agencies and co-operators. A career research scientist, from the National Biological Service, is stationed in the park to conduct and assist in the co-ordination of research (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).

CONSERVATION VALUE The region is a Pleistocene refuge and includes remnants of a diverse Arcto-Tertiary geoflora, with a large number of temperate species. Great Smokey Mountains also contains the finest collection of log buildings in the USA, dating from the mid-1800s to 1920.

CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The park is particularly valued by visitors for the seemingly endless vistas of forested mountains. A limited area contains visitor, maintenance and administrative facilities and the park also contains Cades Cove, Noah Ogle and Roaring Forks historic districts and Oconaluftee archaeological district. The remaining area has been allowed to revert to a forest state through natural plant succession processes and much management effort is directed at keeping human impact to a minimum. The park has a general management plan and a resource management plan supported by a variety of natural resource action plans developed to mitigate specific threats to the park's resources. The system of zoning comprises natural zone (92%), historic zone (1%) and development zone (7%). Generally, the collection of natural resources is not permitted. Exceptions are by scientific permit, fishing permit (mostly for non-native species) and fruits, nuts, berries and certain mushrooms when picked by hand for personal use only (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).

MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS Several road systems pass through the park as well as over 1,280km of horse and foot trails which dissect the high country. The three historical zones have open fields of grass and Cades Cove supports a cattle operation. Subsistence farming and commercial logging have been practised in the past, and logging railroads were built. Some of the park's 1,200 historical structures have been removed, destroyed or allowed to deteriorate. Over 20 non-native plant and several animal species are known to cause significant impacts to natural resources. Management strategies for exotic plants are being actively applied. Non-native forest insects and diseases, mostly from Europe and EastAsia are devastating certain tree species, shifting natural communities and reducing formerly abundant species to rare ones. Wild boar has been controlled since the mid-1950s and are removed regularly. In order to protect and perpetuate rapidly declining native brook trout populations, control efforts have been conducted against two competitive non-native trout species. Continuing problems include visitor abuse of backcountry resources; poaching of wildlife, particulary native brook trout, deer, black bear and American ginseng Panax quinquefolius. Other significant threats include air pollution, since high elevations receive some of the highest acid depositions in North America, and ozone levels are elevated to the point of injury to some plant species. Since inception of park management, total suppression of all wild fires has accounted for unnatural accumulation of fuels and changes in the forest mosaic, which in unfavourable to fire-dependent plant and animal species (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).

STAFF 255 (214 full-time, and part-time employees and 41 temporary employees) (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).

BUDGET The financial statement for 1995 was approximately US$10.3 million (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).

LOCAL ADDRESSES

Superintendent, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 107 Park Headquarters Road, Gatlinburg, Tennessee 37738 (Tel: (615) 436 1705)

REFERENCES

The park library has numerous reference documents, and there are numerous publications relating to the park. A full bibliography of scientific study has been published by the Southern Appalachian Research/ Resources Management Cooperative and Western Carolina University (1982, US MAB Report No. 4, Washington DC) which also published a history of scientific study in the area (1982, US MAB Report No. 5, Washington, DC).

Campbell, C.C. (1960). Birth of a National park in the Great Smoky Mountains.

Maps: 1:125,000 Great Smoky Mountains National Park and Vicinity, US Geological Survey.

USDI/NPS (1977 to present). Research/Resource Management Report Series. National Park Service, Southeast Region, US Department of the Interior/National Park Service.

USDI/NPS (1982). General Management Plan - Great Smoky Mountains National Park, North Carolina-Tennessee. (1982) US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Center, Denver, CO. 70pp.

DATE August 1982, revised August 1986, May 1990, July 1995