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Revision
ICHKEUL NATIONAL PARK, TUNISIA
Brief description: Lake Ichkeul is the last of a chain of shallow
freshwater lakes which once extended all along the northern African seaboard.
The lake and its surrounding marshes are important for the extremely high
numbers of wintering Palaearctic waterfowl: ducks, geese, storks and pink
flamingoes among others which feed and nest there. It is eutrophic and brackish.
but seasonally expanded by floodwaters.
Threats to the Site: Construction of three dams on rivers supplying
the lake has cut off almost all the fresh water inflow, causing a destructive
increase in their salinity. Reed beds, sedges and other fresh-water species
have been replaced by halophytes, causing a sharp reduction in the numbers
of migratory birds which depended on the former habitat; all reed-dependent
species such as purple heron, purple gallinule and reed warblers have disappeared.
There is also agricultural encroachment onto the marshes.
In 1996 the Park was inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.
However, in June 1998 the IUCN observed that the salinity of the lake water
may have exceeded any chance of recovering the World Heritage values of
the site. IUCN expressed its concern at the slow pace and lack of effectiveness
of the rehabilitation program by the State Party and the World Heritage
Committee recommended an expert mission to investigate the development of
additional measures to rehabilitate Ichkeul and to determine the progress
of mitigation by the Tunisian authorities.
COUNTRY Tunisia
NAME Ichkeul National Park
IUCN MANAGEMENT CATEGORY
II National Park. Biosphere Reserve. Ramsar site.
Natural World Heritage Site, inscribed in 1980. Natural Criterion iv.
Listed as World Heritage in Danger in 1996 because the freshwater supply
has been dammed, turning the lake salt.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE Mediterranean Sclerophyll
(2.17.06)
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Ichkeul National Park is in
northern Tunisia on the plain of Mateur, 15km southwest of Bizerta, 10km
north of Mateur, and ~15km south of the Mediterranean at 37º 10'N,
09º 40'E.
DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT
| 1891: |
Jebel
Ichkeul acquired by the state government. 1926: All Garaet el-Ichkeul
became state property. |
| 1974: |
Most
of the Ichkeul marshes ceded to the Direction des Forêts in
1974 for conservation; |
| 1977: |
Recognised
as a Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program; |
| 1980: |
National
Park status for the area ratified by Presidential Decree No. 80-1608;
Designated a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar
Convention; |
| 1990:
|
Included
on Ramsar Convention Montreux record of Heritage sites undergoing
change. |
AREA
Lac Ichkeul: ~12,600ha; Jebel Ichkeul: 1363ha. The lake, normally about
8,700ha, may flood the surrounding marshes to ~11,400ha in the rainy season
(Baccar et al.,2000).
LAND TENURE
The lake, mountain and some marshland are state property, owned by La Direction
des Forêts, La Direction des Ressources en Eau and Les Terres Dominiales;
most of the marshland is private. Six government departments have responsibility
for different aspects of the Park: administration, lake waters, marshland,
fisheries, agriculture and environmental planning.
ALTITUDE
From 1.5m below sea-level (lake bottom) to 511m at the top of Jebel Ichkeul.
PHYSICAL
FEATURES The park is comprised of two physiographic
units: an isolated wooded mountain and a permanent brackish water lake surrounded
by marshland. The lake varies from ~0.9m deep in summer
to ~2.5m deep in winter, and can extend up to 2,700ha over the marshes surrounding
it on the south, west and northwest (extending from ~6 km long to ~15 x
5km wide). The lake is connected to the sea via the Oued Tinja canal leading
to a marine lagoon, Lac de Bizerte. It is fed by six main rivers, from the
west and south: Oueds Douimis, Sejenane, Malah, Rhezala, Joumine (canalised
across the marshes) and Tine, a tributary of the Joumine. These dry out
in summer when a lack of fresh water, high levels of evaporation and inflowing
sea water cause the lake level to fall and its salinity level to rise. From
July to October the salinity can be as high as 38gm per litre; after the
autumnal rains it can fall as low as 1.7gm per litre (Gryn-Ambroes,1980).
Drought from 1999-2002 caused its salinity to rise to twice that of the
sea. The lake basin and marshland soils are alluvial (Andre, 1953; Hollis
et al, 1977). The mountain, Jebel Ichkeul, is composed
of Triassic and Jurassic metamorphosed limestones with fossiliferous pseudo-dolomitic
marbles exposed in quarries on its south-western slopes. (ONM, 1976).
CLIMATE
The climate is typically Mediterranean. The mean monthly January temperature
is 11.3ºC and winter minimum 0ºC. The mean monthly July temperature
is 25.2ºC and the summer maximum 40ºC. The average annual rainfall
is 625mm, only 4 per cent falling in summer. About 300 million cu.m of rainwater
per year entered the lake when first measured (Hollis et al, 1977), but
between 1996-2003 damming and drought drastically diminished its freshwater
supply. Rainfall was plentiful during the winter of 2002-2003 and the dry
marshlands were flooded once more.
VEGETATION
The park has a typically semi-arid flora of about 400 species dominated
by pan-Mediterranean plants. Distinct habitat types within the park include
the mountain and its foothills, the freshwater marshes, the lake and reed
beds, eutrophic and subject to fluctuating salinity, and well-drained lowland
ridges. This wide range of habitats attracts a great variety and number
of waterbirds, both resident and migrant.
The mountain is dominated by a woodland of wild olive Olea europea
and fairly dense maquis of lentisc Pistacia lentiscus with Phillyrea
angustifolia and Smilax aspera, also by open maquis with Euphorbia
dendroides co-dominant on south-eastern slopes, and Juniperus phoenicea
on northern slopes. Chamaerops humilis grows on rocky ridges. Other
mountain shrubs are carob Ceratonia siliqua, Tetraclinis
articulata (R) and Cistus salvifolius (INRAT, 1967; Morgan,
1982). A rich variety of northern Tunisian plant species includes the endemic
Teucrium schoenenbergeri and Crypsis aculeata (list in Hollis
et al, 1977).
The vegetation of the area is distinctly zoned. The lake was fringed
by a belt of Phragmites communis reeds. Growing submerged in the
marsh pools and low salinity open water are narrow-leaved pondweed Potamogeton
pectinatus, Zannichellia palustris, Ekebergia spp., Callitriche
spp. and Ruppia maritima (Hollis et al, 1977). The
potamogeton used to be abundant in the west of the lake, covering a third
of the lake, and was the major food of some 200,000 wintering and migrant
waterbirds. It is being replaced by more salt-tolerant and less palatable
species such as Ruppia cirrhosa (Skinner, 1985; Baccar et al,
2000).
Further inland the marshland is dominated by cordgrass Scirpus
maritimus and S. litoralis which are the main food of greylag
geese, require annual inundation and are not salt-tolerant; also Juncus
subulateus. These are being replaced by more halophytic Ammi visnaga
and Scolymus maculatus. Ranunculus ophioglossifolius and Sparganium
erectum, recorded at only a few sites in Tunisia, also grow in the marshes
(INRAT, 1967; Hollis et al, 1977; Morgan, 1982). The unique
lake and freshwater vegetation of Joumine and Malah marshes ranges from
emergent plant associations such as Scirpus lacustris, Typha angustifolia
and Phragmites communis through a belt of halophytes, Salicornia
arabica, Suaeda maritima and Arthrecnemum fruticosum
to grass pastures with shrubby Tamarix africana (Hollis et
al, 1977; Morgan, 1982). In drier areas and on the well drained ridges
are associations of Hordeum maritimum with Lolium multiflorum
and Daucus carota or Nerium oleander and Ziziphus lotus.
(Posner,1988)
FAUNA
The Ichkeul wetland is the most productive wetland for waterfowl
in North Africa and one of the most important sites in the entire Mediterranean
region for wintering Palaearctic species, with past records of up to 300,000
to 400,000 birds present at one time. 226 species of birds including 34
breeding residents were recorded by Skinner et al, in 1986.
The most numerous species are wigeon Anas penelope (39,000:112,000
in the1970s), common pochard Aythya ferina (120,000 in 1971) and
coot Fulica atra (36,000:188,000 in 1973). High records for common
pochard and greylag goose Anser anser (3,200: 18,000 in the 1970s)
show that Ichkeul is their most important wintering site in northwest Africa
(Bousquet, 1988). 600 (4% of known world population) of the threatened white-headed
duck Oxyura leucocephala, were seen in 1977. Other wintering wetland
birds include the threatened marbled teal Marmoronetta angustirostris,
ferruginous duck Aythya nyroca, and corncrake, Crex crex;
also high numbers of green-winged teal Anas crecca, northern pintail
Anas acuta, northern shoveler Anas clypeata and black-winged
stilt Himantopus himantopus. Flamingoes Phoenicopterus ruber summer
on the lake (Gryn-Ambroes,1980; Skinner et al.,1986; Posner, 1988).
However, by 2002 as a result of the lack of fresh water and subsequent
inflow from the sea, the waterfowl population of the lake was mostly of
salt-tolerant species. Other birds include Egyptian vulture, Neophron
percnopterus, Bonelli's eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus, booted
eagle H. pennatus, marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus,
lanner falcon Falco biarmicus, peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus
(threatened), collared pratincole Glareola pratincola and
Moussier's redstart Phoenicurus moussieri. Migrant marsh harrier
Circus cyaneus and reed warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus are
common, also the threatened migrant white stork Ciconia ciconia.
The rare black stork Ciconia nigra and glossy ibis Plegadis flacinellus
are recorded.
One of the most notable of the mammals recorded at Ichkeul is the
otter Lutra lutra which has been hunted for its meat. Less than ten
animals were believed to exist at the time of survey (H. Miles, pers.comm.1987).
Of the larger mammals there are large populations of wild boar Sus scrofa,
and introduced wild water buffalo Bubalus bubalis; also a
number of crested porcupine Hystrix cristata (LR), jackal canis
aurea, genet Genetta genetta, Egyptian mongoose Herpestes
ichneumon, wild cat Felis sylvestris lybica; and four species
of bat. Lists of fauna are recorded in the London University College report
(Hollis et al., 1977).
The herpetofauna varies with water level and salinity. The marsh
frog Rana ribibunda is common in the marshes. There are also painted
frog Discoglossus pictus , three species of toad, two harmless species
of snake and one lacertid. Two pond turtles, Iberian Clemys leprosa
and European Emys orbicularis are found in the lake (Gryn-Ambroes,1980;
Posner,1988).
The lake and marshes, especially the dense Potamogeton beds, support
huge populations of a few species of marine and brackish water invertebrates.
Species include Nereis diversicolor, Gammarus locusta, Corophium
volutator, Sphaeroma hookeri, Idotea spp., Hydrobia
spp., Abra spp. and Cerastoderma glaucum (Morgan, 1982); freshwater
invertebrate species also occur on the edge of the saltmarsh. Shore crab
Carcinus mediterraneus and Balanus amphitrite occur near the
Tindja canal.
The principal fish dependent on this teeming life are eel Anguilla
anguilla, mullets Mugil cephalus and M. ramada, sole Solea
solea, sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax, barbel Barbus barbus,
shad Alosa fallax and anchovy Engraulis encrasicholus. In
shallow water Mediterranean killifish Aphanius fasciatus and seahorse
Syngnathus abaster are found.
The site has internationally important Pleistocene (Villafranchian) fossil
deposits in late Tertiary and early Quaternary outcrops on the northern
shore. They include unique assemblages of mammal remains, notably hominid
and primate records, but also bones of Elaphas planifrons, Stylohipparion
libycum, Libytherium maurusium, Anacus osiris,
Testudo gigans and T.emys (Arambourg et Arnould, 1949; OMN,1976).
CULTURAL
HERITAGE The lake, marshes and mountain have been settled by man for
millennia. In Carthaginian times Lake Ichkeul surrounded the mountain. A
nearby Roman mosaic depicts a purple gallinule porphyrio porphyrio,
which bred in the reedbeds until a decade ago. In 1240 Jebel Ichkeul and
the lake were already managed as a hunting reserve. Water buffalo were present
then, and were certainly introduced from Italy in 1729. The herd was decimated
in 1957 for food but has recovered. (Müller,1970; Ministère
de l'Agriculture,1980). Lake sedimentation and the subsequent growth of
Potamogeton increased in the late C19th with increased farming and the cutting
of the Bizerta ship canal in 1895 (Stevenson, 1991).
LOCAL HUMAN
POPULATION The area immediately around the park is very densely populated,
with the towns of Bizerta, Mateur and Menzel Bourguiba 15,10 and 5km away
respectively and Tindja village on its eastern edge. The government is committed
to a plan for the improvement of the Mateur plain which requires the local
water for drinking and irrigation. Hunting, fishing, grazing and quarrying
are officially illegal within the Park. However, there are up to 2,500 cattle,
sheep and goats and 800ha of cultivation within the park boundary (Anon.,1988).
On its fringes there are intensive arable farming, orchards and pasture.
The village on the park boundary near the quarry is growing and may absorb
the 130 families squatting in the park (Anon.,1988; Bousquet, 1988). Most
of these are employed in the large illegal stone and gravel quarries on
the southern and northwestern slopes of J.Ichkeul (Drucker, 1987). The local
fishery, run by the government, produces 200 tonnes per year (Baccar
et al.,2000).
VISITORS
AND VISITOR FACILITIES After the Direction des Forêts and the
Tourist Directorate extensively promoted natural history tourism, 23,000
visited the park in 1987 and more than 2,500 people visited the area over
six weeks in spring 1988. These included 41% in school groups and 6.6% foreign
tourists. Many locals visit the hot springs (hammams) on the northeastern
edge of the mountain (Anon,1988). An eco-museum and information centre built
with the help of the British Museum for Natural History and the WWF opened
in spring 1989. The visitor facilities, including exhibits and audio-visual
displays are also sited on the northeastern corner of the Jebel (Drucker,1987;
Bousquet, 1988). There are no accommodations or camping facilities within
the park.
SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH AND FACILITIES Some of the earliest scientific studies were
the palaeontological excavations in1947-49 (Arambourg et Arnould,1949).
Stratigraphic and palaeontological studies were carried out by the Tunisian
National Bureau of Mines (ONM, 1976). Research on Lake Ichkeul was done
by the University of Tunis, the Institut National Scientifique et Technique
d'Océanographie et de Pêche, Tunis (INSTOP) and University
College London. A program of waterfowl observations by University College
London with IWRB, Slimbridge and the Tour de Valat CNRS Biological Station,
Camargue, France, has run since 1963 (Bousquet, 1988). These consultants
recommended a series of measures to manage the lake's water regimen (Hollis
et al,1986). Research facilities in the park opened at the eco-museum in
the 1990. The Ramsar Convention Bureau sent out Advisory Missions in 1988,1989
and 2000.
CONSERVATION
VALUE Garaet Ichkeul is the last of a chain of lakes which used to extend
across the north African littoral and one of the four most important remaining
wetlands in the western Mediterranean. The national park was created to
safeguard this wetland with its diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
The lake and marshes are of particular importance for the extremely high
numbers of wintering Palaearctic waterfowl which still totalled over 90,000
in 1999/2000 and included globally threatened species (Baccar et al.,2000).
The park also protects important fossil mammal deposits and is scenically
beautiful. Decreasing the fresh water supply will eventually convert it
into a seawater lagoon.
CONSERVATION
MANAGEMENT A management plan developed in 1977 was incorporated into
the National Park statutes. The most important objectives were to control
the water level and salinity of the lake and to maintain and develop the
pondweed Potamogeton, the major food source for wintering and migrating
waterfowl (Hollis et al.; 1986; Bousquet,1988). The EEC and the
French Ministry of the Environment, funded a management study between 1982
and 1985 by University College, London, the IWRB, the Tour du Valat station
and consultant engineers SOGREAH to counter the effects of dams and canalising
on the lake and marshland This initiated designs for a sluice on Oued Tindja
to control water salinity by restricting seawater entry and containing the
loss of fresh water which was built by 1996. It condemned the dredging and
embankment of the Joumine and Malah canals which dry out the marshes, encourage
halophyte growth and access by poachers, and recommended a visitor centre
and cleaning up pollution from the hammams.
In 1996 the Tunisian Ministry of the Environment commissioned a report on
measures to reverse the degradation; some have been taken (ANPE,1996). Three
smaller proposed dams have been cancelled for the time being, water from
existing dams is to be released to the lake and a pumped supply from Sidi
El-Barrak dam (127km west) may be made available but the necessary pumping
station had not been built by 2002. The quarries are to be closed and water
treatment plants installed for nearby towns. Government action is to include
agreement among the six departments responsible for making decisions about
the area of the Park, for water supply, rural engineering, fishing, grazing
and agriculture, forestry, local populations and environmental planning.
The canals were to be filled in and the marsh restored. A scientific committee
from all the researchers studying the park was to be convened. Monitoring
of the water, lake siltation, flora and bird species were to be continued
and the analysed information made available to decision-makers (Smart &
Hollis,1989; Baccar et al., 2000). A government report of 2001
summarising measures for the lake's protection was taken by the IUCN as
the basis for establishing the appropriate conditions for annual monitoring
and rehabilitation, for which funding was requested (UNESCO,2002); and in
2003 the Tunisian government asked the IUCN and the Centre for Mediterranean
Cooperation for help in restoring the lake. with funding from UNESCO (IUCN/WCPA,
2003).
MANAGEMENT
CONSTRAINTS The site was placed on the List of World Heritage Sites
in Danger in 1996 because dams built upstream (on O.Joumine in 1983 and
O.Sejanine in 1994) had cut off nearly all the flow of fresh water to the
lake. This had greatly increased its salinity, dried up the marshes allowing
livestock to degrade them, and caused a very serious loss of biological
diversity. It altered the food chain by greatly reducing the area of Potamogeton
- in 1988/9, from 3000 to 500ha (Stevenson, 1991). With replacement at the
same time of Scirpus maritimus and Phragmites by more salt tolerant species,
there was a potential loss of 20 per cent of the marshland food plants (Bousquet,
1988, Baccar et al.,2000). Reed-dependent species have disappeared with
the lakeshore reed beds, and the number of migrating birds has declined.
Wintering waterfowl and greylag goose numbers have decreased from 200,000
to 50,000 and 20,000 to less than 1,000 respectively (Baccar et al.,2000)
The park director still lacks sufficient authority, budget, clear park boundaries,
a trained and uniformed staff and an updated management plan. An adequately
funded administrative structure advised by a team of scientists is needed
to implement the integrated management plan drawn up by the ANPE report
team and monitor development. A workshop was held in January 2003 to develop
the options for a sustainable future for the lake which again emphasised
the need for an enforceable management plan, and the installation of a water
regime favourable to the lake. However, the Ministry of Water Resources
could only promise 20-25 million cu.m, a quarter of that needed.
There are still six government departments with different responsibilities
for and attitudes towards the Park. The marsh canals are unreclaimed through
fear of the effect on groundwater, and stone quarries which provide work
but have degraded much of the south side of the Park still operate. The
families (~1000 people) squatting in the park are still the cause of overgrazing
and land clearance. The whole area is under threat from commercial fishing,
logging, poaching, agricultural expansion, and pollution by pesticides,
fertilisers and tourism (Tamisier,1988). After heavy winter rain the ecosystem
partially recovers and the number of birds wintering in the west end of
the lake increases, but numbers are still low. However, the whole area of
and around both lake and mountain, the bird populations and the World Heritage
status of the Park all remain at risk from the effects of global warming,
lack of rainfall and inadequate mitigation (Smart & Hollis,1989; IUCN,1996,1997;
Baccar et al.,2000; UNESCO,2001).
STAFF
A National Park director and wardens have been appointed, based in the Commissaire
Regional au Developpement Agricole de Bizerte (CRDA) (Drucker, 1987).
BUDGET
The gross annual budget allocated for the park averaged DT16,000. The EEC
and French Ministry of the Environment funded the 1982-85 management study
by University of London, the IWRB and the Tour du Valat station. The eco-museum
was built with assistance from the WWF; the World Heritage Fund donated
a vehicle for Park surveillance (Bousquet, 1988). In 2002 the WWF gave an
emergency grant of $50,000 for a workshop, held in January 2003, to improve
the monitoring of the rehabilitation of the lake to be summarised in a report
to be submitted later in 2003 (UNESCO, 2002).
LOCAL ADDRESSES
Directeur du Parc National de l'Ichkeul, 7029, Bizerta,
Direction des Forêts, 30 Rue Alain Savary, Tunis.
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DATE
February 1988. Updated 5/1989,12/1989, 8/1997, March 2003. |
