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A GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF WETLAND AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ON THE WORLD HERITAGE LIST

(From the poem Inversnaid, by Gerard Manley Hopkins,1844-1889).

In 1996, IUCN's Natural Heritage Program initiated a project to prepare a global strategy for natural World Heritage sites. It was foreseen to prepare global overviews on World Heritage site coverage in the various biomes of the world (e.g. forests, wetlands and marine areas, mountains, grasslands, etc.) and an overview of biodiversity values of World Heritage sites. The project would involve close co-operation with the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) where the world's major biodiversity and protected area database is located. Support for the conduct of these theme studies was generously provided by Australia's Department of Environment.

The first in this series of working papers was the global theme study on "Earth's Geological History - A Contextual Framework for Assessments of World Heritage Fossil Site Nominations." This report was prepared over the course of a year by Professor Rod Wells of Flinders University and was made available to the World Heritage Committee in December, 1996. It provides a temporal view of where fossil records best display the record of life on earth (natural heritage criteria i).

This working paper is the second in the series and focuses on wetland and marine sites on the World Heritage List. Although marine areas (e.g. coral reefs, open ocean, island systems, etc.) comprise different biomes than inland and coastal wetlands, they have been included together in this inventory to offer a broader view of World Heritage protection. Wetlands and marine areas are among the most productive natural environments on earth providing substantial socio-economic benefits to humans as well as habitat for numerous species. Some of the most notable values for wetlands include: maintaining water tables for agriculture, flood control, shoreline stabilisation, storm protection, reducing sediment, increasing nutrients (wetlands provide eight times as much plant life as wheat fields), providing an energy source, and harbouring biological diversity, among numerous other values. Marine systems comprise nearly two-thirds of the earth's surface and play a vital role in climate control, weather patterns, the food chain, and habitat for an abundance of aquatic species. Island systems also provide habitat for numerous endemic flora and fauna species (one in three of all known threatened plants occur on islands) as well as for a portion of the human population.

Despite their importance to the ecological process and livelihood of humans, wetlands and marine areas remain among the world's most threatened habitats. Threats to wetlands are numerous and vary depending on location. Some of the most common threats to wetlands include: drainage for agricultural land; illegal or over fishing; overgrazing; commercial logging; industrial waste; sewage effluent; pesticides; gold mining, dams, institutional weaknesses, and human encroachment and resource needs. Marine areas are victims of over fishing and pollution, whilst coastal wetlands and island systems face threats from sewage effluent, human pressure for development and tourism, and depredations of invasive plants and animals. As a result of many of these threats, six of the 77 World Heritage natural sites with wetland and marine values have been placed on the List of World Heritage Sites in Danger (Table 10) indicating that inscription on the World Heritage List does not necessarily guarantee effective stewardship.

Protection for wetlands and marine areas can come in many forms, from local practices, to national legislation, to international recognition through inscription on the Ramsar and/or the World Heritage List or other mechanisms. Over the past few years there have been many achievements in protecting these areas (including 39 of the world's most prestigious wetlands and marine areas being inscribed on the World Heritage List - Table 1), but the situation facing the earth's wetlands and marine areas remains a global conservation concern.

The purpose of this working paper is to inventory existing World Heritage sites with wetlands and marine values. The reason for this is twofold: first, to provide an overview of the current "coverage" and second, to locate potential wetland and marine areas from different global regions for future inscription on the World Heritage List (gap areas). The overview will assist IUCN in making comparative evaluations and provide the World Heritage Committee with a firmer scientific basis for making decisions. It will also be of interest to State Parties as it will provide them with a global perspective which is useful when identifying potential World Heritage properties in their territories.

II. What are Wetlands?

Wetlands constitute a resource of great economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value to human life and are essential habitat for numerous threatened and endangered species of flora and fauna. Despite their importance, wetlands are often difficult to define since they occupy the transitional zone between permanently wet and generally dry environments and contain an enormous variety of types. For this reason, categories for wetlands can be vague and inconsistent with other attempts, therefore, this overview has adopted a broad view of wetlands and includes more than a mere list of World Heritage sites which satisfy criteria for Ramsar designation. It further includes World Heritage sites with other significant wetland values which may be ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological or hydrological, including such phenomena as thermal features and underground rivers. This overview further includes World Heritage natural sites with a marine, coral reef, open ocean/sea and island component which may not be considered typical wetlands values.

There are more than 50 definitions of wetlands used throughout the world, but the broadest and most international is provided by the Ramsar Convention, which defines wetlands as "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres." (Article 1.1). Ramsar further incorporates into its consideration for listing "riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands." (Article 2.1). Ramsar categorises wetlands into the following: a) estuaries, mangroves and tidal flats; b) floodplains and deltas; c) freshwater marshes; d) lakes; e) peatlands; and f) forested wetlands. This overview contains World Heritage natural and mixed sites which qualify as Ramsar sites in addition to sites with significant inland wetlands (subterranean rivers and lakes), a coastal/marine component (coral reefs and islands), mangroves, and other sites with unique wetland and marine values. In fact, almost all natural World Heritage sites contain some wetland component, however only those considered highly significant have been included in this document.

Although the World Heritage and Ramsar conventions both protect natural sites through inscription on a protected list, they have differences which should be clarified. Ramsar only protects significant wetlands, which are inscribed on the List of Wetlands of International Importance once nominated by the respective State Party. Under the World Heritage Convention, natural sites which contain various geological, biodiversity and/or aesthetic values are nominated by State Parties, but are not inscribed on the World Heritage List until approved by the World Heritage Committee. Therefore, the two conventions overlap in the protection of wetlands and wetland related values (migratory waterfowl, floodplains, etc.), evident by the 77 World Heritage sites with wetland and marine values described in this overview, but the World Heritage Convention protects sites with a broader range of biome values.

The sites described in this overview were divided into two lists: those that have major wetland and marine values and those where wetland and marine values are secondary to other natural values contained within the site. The decision whether a site had major or secondary wetland and marine values was based upon whether or not the values were one of the most important characteristics of the site and whether or not it was part of the criteria mentioned by the State Party in the nomination for World Heritage designation. Since World Heritage sites often contain a large area of land (Figures 1 and 2) and/or more than one ecological value, a site may contain a significant wetland, but after comparison with characteristics of the entire site, the wetland/marine portion was categorised as a secondary value. For example, the Virgin Komi Forests contain significant lakes and marshes, floodplains, lakes, bogs and rivers, but it was categorised as a site with secondary wetland and marine value, since the site was nominated and inscribed on the World Heritage List primarily for its predominant ecological value, namely expansive Siberian pine and boreal forest.

On the other hand, if the wetland and marine value comprises a significant portion of the site or was a primary reason why the site was nominated for the World Heritage List, then it was categorised as a site with a major wetland and marine value. For example, the Sundarbans was categorised as a site with major wetland and marine values since one of the primary reasons for its nomination and inscription on the World Heritage List was because it is the world's largest region of mangrove forest. Twelve of the 77 World Heritage sites included in this overview are also Ramsar sites and each of them were categorised as World Heritage sites with major wetland and marine values (Table 1). World Heritage Operational Guidelines, # 43-45 (annex 3) and Ramsar qualifications for wetland values were the main criteria used in compiling the list of sites with significant wetland and marine values which may merit future nomination for the World Heritage List. (Table 11).

IUCN welcomes comments on the World Heritage wetland and marine sites included in this working paper or other sites which may contain significant wetland and marine values. Such comments and information will be useful in preparation of future revisions of this working paper. In an era of the transformation of many wetland and marine areas for economic development and agricultural production, the need to protect wetland and marine areas is more important than ever. The Ramsar Convention and the World Heritage Convention have been successful tools for conserving a considerable part of the earth's biological diversity represented by wetland and marine areas, but much remains to be done to protect the remaining wetlands (17% of the total area of the tropics) and marine areas of the world.

The Overview is divided into three sections:

1. Natural World Heritage sites with major wetland and marine values (39 sites)

These 39 sites were categorised as sites containing major wetland and marine values if the respective State Party mentioned the wetland/marine values in the site nomination as a primary reason for inscription on the World Heritage List and/or because the site contains a previously listed Ramsar site. This decision was inferred from the formal nomination prepared by each State Party. Although many sites were inscribed on the World Heritage List for meeting several criteria, the wetland and/or marine value(s) for these sites was listed in the site nomination by the respective State Party as a major reason for inscription on the World Heritage List.

2. Natural World Heritage sites with secondary wetland and marine values (38 sites)

These 38 sites share the same significant wetland and marine values as the sites above, based on the same criteria, but were not among the major reasons for nomination as World Heritage sites. For example, Rio Abiseo contains an extensive river basin of wetland significance, but the site was nominated for inscription on the World Heritage List primarily for its biodiversity and other values, therefore, it was categorised in this overview as a site with secondary wetland and marine values. In the nominations for the remaining sites in this category, the respective State Party may not have mentioned the wetland/marine value as a major reason for inscription on the World Heritage List, therefore, the wetland/marine value of the site was noted as secondary.

To assist in analysing the annex text, the following tables are attached:

Attached are also several maps which identify World Heritage natural sites with wetland and marine values. The larger global map shows the location of current World Heritage natural sites with both major and secondary wetland and marine values (colour coded). The following smaller maps are divided into global realms (Udvardy, 1975) and identify the World Heritage wetland and marine sites located in each region. The smaller realm maps identify the sites with major and secondary wetland and marine values by using two different types of symbols.

Decisions regarding which World Heritage sites to include in the overview were primarily based on information extracted from the WCMC database. The database contains a record for each World Heritage site and includes discussion on the physical features, vegetation, flora and fauna, and conservation value of each site. WCMC drafts and updates the Data Sheets on the database based on materials received from the State Party and the conservation community. Reference was also made to Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's Living Resources (1992), a WCMC publication. In compiling this overview several IUCN publications were used, including Review of the Protected Areas System in the Indomalayan and Afrotropical Realms (1986); Coral Reefs of the World, vols. I-III (IUCN-UNEP, 1988); Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and Required Action (1990); Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems, vols. I-IV (IUCN-UNEP, 1992); Wetlands In Danger (1993); The World Heritage Convention, Twenty Years Later (1993); Paradise on Earth (1995), A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas, vols. I-IV, (IUCN-World Bank, 1995); as well as articles, conference proceedings and secondary sources. Ramsar publications were used, namely the Ramsar Convention Manual and the texts for Wetlands of International Importance from various global regions. The International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau publication, "Wetlands" (1991) was also a valuable resource material. Other materials used were "Great Reefs of the World," (1993) by Carl Roesller; "Putting Biodiversity on the Map: Priority Areas for Global conservation," (1992) by the International Council for Bird Preservation; and "Nordic World Heritage," (1996) by the Nordic Council of Ministers and UNESCO.

Wetlands and marine areas occur in every country, from the tundra to the tropics, from islands to the deep ocean. With nearly 70% of the world's population living near sea coasts, river valleys or lake shores, humans depend on the preservation of these areas as much as ever, especially in the developing world. This reliance is increasingly important since much of the world's wetlands have been lost and many marine areas degraded during this century, due to social and economic decisions. Uncertainty exists over the actual percentage of wetlands that remain today, but WCMC estimates that 570 million ha (6% of earth's surface) are presently composed of wetlands of which 30% are bogs, 26% fens, 20% swamps, 15% floodplains, and 2% lakes. WCMC further suggests that 24 million ha of mangroves and 60 million ha of coral reefs remain in the world.

At the current time, statistics on the amount of global wetlands are mere estimates, but Ramsar is in the process of compiling more precise global data. More accurate sources of information are available regarding the amount/percentage of wetllands remaining within individual countries or for specific wetland types. As humans continue to learn more about their demands on the environment, there is an increasing need to inventory the wetland and marine areas that have received international protection through the World Heritage Convention. Furthermore, it is important to identify regions of the world with wetland and marine values that have minimal World Heritage protection (gap areas) and list sites which may potentially be nominated for World Heritage protection due to significant wetland and marine values.

Upon review of the World Heritage natural sites with major and secondary wetland and marine values (Tables and Figures 1 and 2) a gap analysis shows that there are only a small number of World Heritage sites with significant wetland/marine values within Central Asia, the Middle East, the Polar regions, and the South Pacific (see global map). Tables 1 and 2 indicate that 20 of the 77 sites (nearly 25%) are located in the Palearctic Realm and a total of 32 (over 40%) within the Palearctic or Nearctic Realm, compared to only two sites in each the Oceanian and Antarctic Realm. A total of 14 sites, including nine with major wetland/marine values, are located in the Afrotropical Realm and 12 sites are included from the Neotropical Realm, with eight containing major wetland/marine values. The Indomalayan Realm, is well represented with ten sites, but six of them are located in India and Indonesia alone, which does not indicate a diverse representation of sites with wetland/marine values in this region. On the other hand, a diverse distribution is evident in the Neotropical Realm where 10 South American countries are represented by the 10 sites. The Afrotropical Realm also has a diverse distribution of sites with 11 nations containing World Heritage sites with significant wetland/marine values (Tables and Figures 1 and 2).

From this overview of 77 World Heritage wetland and marine sites, it is clear that other important wetland and marine areas exist which may be merit consideration for World Heritage nomination. A preliminary list of prospective wetland and marine areas with potential for World Heritage inscription is described in Table 11. This is not an exhaustive list, but merely an example of sites located in some of the gap areas currently not protected by World Heritage. Emphasis was placed on suggesting potential wetland sites in areas without current World Heritage protection (gap areas). Omissions of potential sites (Table 11) may not have been because of the lack of wetland or marine values, but rather because there were already other World Heritage wetland/marine sites located in that particular region.

Table 5 shows that the majority of sites have a coastline/marine component which is usually a good indicator of wetland potential. There can be obstacles in protecting such coastal areas due to the desire for coastline development and transport access. Despite these pressures, there has been success in protecting these regions of the world under the World Heritage Convention indicated by Table 5 which shows that 37 of the World Heritage sites with significant wetland values (nearly 50%) have a coastal component.

Mangroves are a component of 15 of the sites (nearly 20%) on the World Heritage List (Table 6). In addition, the portion of the Sundarbans located in Bangladesh, which contains mangroves, was nominated for inscription as a natural site on the World Heritage List by Bangladesh at the June, 1997 World Heritage Bureau meeting in Paris. If approved by the December, 1997 Committee, this site would be included in Table 6.

Islands are well represented on the natural World Heritage List with 17 sites (Table 7), not including the three additional sites (Cocos Island Marine and Terrestrial Conservation Area in Costa Rica; Morne Trois Pitons National Park in Dominica; and Heard and McDonald Islands in Australia) which were nominated by the respective State Parties and recommended for inscription by the World Heritage Bureau at the June, 1997 meeting in Paris.

Coral reefs should also be another area of focus in future World Heritage inscription. Eleven existing sites contain coral reefs (Table 8) with 5 of them located in Australia and Indonesia. Other priority coral reefs are highlighted in the four volume IUCN/World Bank study on "A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas."

The size distribution of World Heritage sites in this overview (Figures 1 and 2) are disparate with an expansive range from Vallée de Mai, the smallest at 19.5ha, to Lake Baikal, at 8,800,000ha, to the Great Barrier Reef, the largest at 35 million ha. The majority of sites (47 of 77) are between 10,000 and a 1,000,000ha with 27 being between 100,000 and a 1,000,000ha. Although wetland areas may be smaller than World Heritage sites on the average, 17 of the sites in this overview with significant wetland/marine values are over one million ha in size, whereas only 5 sites were less than 1000ha. It is important to protect an area larger than the actual wetland area by including a buffer zone around the site. For this reason, World Heritage, which attempts to protect a larger area within often various natural values, has been a valuable mechanism for protecting wetland and marine areas.

VII. Acknowledgements

IUCN would like to acknowledge the assistance of Ramsar, especially Montserrat Carbonell, Rebecca D'Cruz, Tim Jones and Tom Kabii for assistance on potential wetland sites and Maryse Mahy for translation of the executive summary into French. We also acknowledge Jeff McNeely and Jean-Yves Pirot (IUCN), Natarajan Ishwaran (UNESCO World Heritage Centre), Simon Blyth and Jim Paine (WCMC), Sue Wells (WWF), and the Australian Department of Environment for their generous support towards the production of this document.